Ethical Theory Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Ethical Theory - Assignment Example this puts Kuwait as the most favorable location in the Islamic world as compared to Dubai owing to its central location and accessibility to the majority of the Islam entrepreneurs. Most of the Arab banks and the European counterparts are located in Kuwait, it is therefore, appropriate for Dubai to import its financial center to Kuwait (Economic and Political Research Dept, 2009). It is worth noting that, majority of the Islamic banks do the importation of the convention financial products from most of the European markets and other parents of the world. The fact that most of the inhabitants of the Middle East engage in trade, makes it suitable for Dubai to import its financial center (The University of Virginia, 2009 p.370). It is evident that, unlike Dubai, Kuwait does not suffer numerous challenges with regard to the development of its financial centers. It is worth noting that, Kuwait has robust and developed financial sectors with greater scope of development unlike Dubai. The fact that Dubai has limited domestic and corporate sectors that reflects on the shareholdings of the state, this make it feasible for importing its financial center (Great Britain. D ept. of Trade & Great Britain. Dept. of Industry, 2010 p.430). It is imperative that Kuwait has sufficient human capital unlike Dubai that is characterized by lack of skilled staff hence inability to develop its financial centers. The problem of developing the financial centers is compounded by the magnificent government sector in Dubai. It is also important to note that, Kuwait has a robust financial cum business environment that forms the basis of a successful financial center. In this regard, Kuwait does well on tax remuneration with respect to the stipulated government policies. The country also has extensive expatriate staff who can offer the needed advice accordingly (University of Michigan, 2010). By pooling its financial centers in Kuwait, Dubai will be able to expand its global sovereign assets and

Trends in International Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Trends in International Business - Essay Example Deregulation process has actually allowed global firms to expand and enter into the markets which were traditionally closed. Further, deregulation has created more efficiency and has allowed them to move beyond bureaucracies to implement better and more improved management practices. Deregulation of industries like Airline services has driven the prices down and further intensified the competition. This has therefore benefited common consumers to take advantage of lower prices and more efficient products and services. (Katsioloudes & Hadjidakis, 2012) The fall of Berlin Wall has actually paved the way for the integration of Europe and has allowed Eastern Europe to come out of the Communist influence. The changes in Eastern Europe since the fall has allowed these countries to become part of EU and thus gave access to new markets. International firms have also gained access to cheap labor in Europe besides Consumers getting low priced

Competitive position and performance of Soft Drinks Industry 03082 Essay

Competitive position and performance of Soft Drinks Industry 03082 - Essay Example The discussion has provided a clear image about the organisations and their last five years financial performances. It has evaluated the non-financial performances to assess the future performance of the organisations. The study has provided essential recommendations for the organisations to improve their future performance. The soft drink market is the highly growing industry sectors of the UK with 44.8% market share. In comparison to 2013, the overall consumption of different soft drink brands within the UK has witnessed a modest increase of 0.9%. Approximately 48% of consumers in the UK prefer different brands of carbonated soft drink rather than other beverages. Over 37% of the household of the UK are replacing alcoholic beverages with the carbonated soft drink during their meal time (Ford, 2014). The UK soft drink market consists of wide range of product options such as carbonated drinks, flavoured juices, ready-to-drink beverages, packaged drinking water and energy drinks (British Soft Drink Association. 2014). The carbonated soft drink (CDS) market possesses the largest portion, i.e. 50.3%, of the UK soft drink industry. The major players of the UK CDS sector include Britvic Plc., Nichols Plc. and A. G. Barr Plc. which own respectively 43%, 2% and 3% of the overall market share by revenue (Britis h Soft Drink Association. 2013). Though the market consists of a huge number of local organisations, it is still dominated by different international players such as Coca-Cola Company and PepsiCo Inc (Steen and Ashurst, 2008). The range of soft drinks on the shelves of retail outlets is rapidly growing which is giving people a wider choice than ever. Therefore, this situation has fuelled fierce competition within the local brands to secure a competitive position within the UK market. The strong competition in the market is also influencing the major local players to indulge in different research

Sexual Disconnect Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Sexual Disconnect - Term Paper Example She also notes that any sexual involvement between a minor, any person below the age of 18, also referred as a child, and an individual five or more years older, then there is a high likelihood that the child or minor is being exploited. This is to mean there is an imbalance of power between the victim and the abuser in terms of physical size and strength, age and the kind of emotional relational relationship they are involved in. she further notes that the perpetrators are not usually strangers necessarily, most of the reported cases have been acquaintances of these children and even people these children trust and have a deep relationship with such as family members. Sexual abuse takes several forms. They will involve both use of contact which is physical and non-physical acts. Physical abuse include actions such as fondling, kissing done in a sexual way, contact with the private parts which include breasts, vagina, penis and buttocks, inserting objects into the genitals, rubbing o f abuser’s genitals against the genitals of the child or even the child’s clothing and intercourse. ... There will be behavioural change within the child which can easily be noted by those caring for the child such as the parents and the teachers. Response to sexual abuse is different for different children in respect to the age of the child, the severity or extent of the abuse, duration of the abuse as well as the relationship between the victim and the perpetrator. A guardian, care giver or teacher interacting with the child will know of child abuse through certain projections such as pregnancy, sexually transmitted infections, bruises in part like the mouth, difficulty when walking or sitting, discharge in the genitals, difficulty in sleeping such as nightmares, anxiety, depression, self-injurious acts such as cutting or suicidal attempts, explicit sexual knowledge for a child of an inappropriate age or even withdrawal of a child from other people (Child Sexual Fact Sheet, 2009). The children’s actions cannot therefore be termed as sexual abuse. This is because the students b eing in the same class are likely to be of similar ages therefore indicating no imbalance of power in terms of age or physical size and strength. Being the first instance for the occurrence, it is difficult to determine whether the two had been engaging in such actions for some time. When the teacher walks in to check on the boys, she finds both of the laughing. Sexual abuse does not occur for the mutual excitement of both participants but it acts to victimize the individual being abused while only exciting the perpetrator. A five year old child may also not be aware of issues to do with sexual intimacy; the boys were probably experimenting to quest inquisitive nature. Sexual orientation refers to the sex of those who are sexually attracted. Individuals attracted to

Critically discuss the use of standard deviation as a risk indicator Essay - 1

Critically discuss the use of standard deviation as a risk indicator for investment purposes - Essay Example A greater standard deviation implies a greater volatility. More the volatility, more the risk. Generally, high risk is associated with high returns and high losses. Therefore, a fund with higher average returns and lower volatility is the most preferred option. However, such an ideal situation rarely materializes and the investors have to strike a balance between returns and risk due to volatility. Standard deviation acts as a useful tool in achieving this balance. Standard deviation is not a failsafe method for risk measurement. Standard deviation has an inherent limitation that it is based on analysis of past data. That is why it is also known as historical volatility. The allocation of assets in a stock or fund in the past may be entirely different from the situation today. Therefore, past performance would not be a suitable indicator of future performance. In this case several external factors would have to be considered and standard deviation may fail to give desired results. Standard deviation does not give information about the current debt structure of the company. It does not take into account the recent changes. For example, a certain company may have an average debt of 30% of the total capital structure over the past 20 years but suddenly over the past year the company has taken a large amount of debt which has take it to 60%. This would have an impact on the financial condition of the company and stockholders are bound to suffer. However, a standard deviation would still show a decent amount of volatility in accordance with previous debt structure. This leads us to the interpretation that standard deviation alone should never be used as a risk indicator. Many analysts believe that standard deviation is a measure of volatility and not of risk. This has to do with the fact that risk means different things for different people. For some investors, risk implies losing all of their investment, for others a negative return

Intelligence oversight Essay Example for Free

Intelligence oversight Essay Introduction: MEK Overview The Mujahadeen-e-Khalq (MEK) is also known as the Peoples Mujahedin of Iran (PMOI). MEK has been sporadically active in attempting to overthrow the Iranian government since the early 1960s, and its members have used a variety of tactics to achieve their political ends including political campaigning, subversion, and violent attacks targeting civilians. Due in part to their targeting of American civilians living in Iran during the 1970s and their support of Saddam Hussein, the United States State Department has listed MEK as a Foreign Terrorist Organization. In October 2012, the U.S. State Department will decide whether to remove MEK from the FTO list based on MEKs denouncing terrorist tactics and devotion to diplomatic means to gain power versus violent attacks (Masters 2012). Origins, Ideology and Goals MEK was born out of a student-group resistance to Shah Pahlavi in 1965. The founding members of MEK in Tehran regarded the Shah as a U.S. puppet, and they felt that his westernization of Iran went against Irans traditional Islamic values. They believed in a violent overthrow of the Shah to return Iran to Islamic rule. In 1979, the group aligned itself with Ayatollah Khomeini in hopes that it could run for office after Shah Pahlavis exile, but Ayatollah Khomeini succeeded in overthrowing the Shah and he crushed any opposition to his new government. Since 1979, MEK has been trying to gain the opportunity to run for office in Irans government by shifting alliances and violently attacking the forces, which have prevented its political ambitions (Goulka 2009). In 2003, the group publically denounced violence in an attempt to foster global political support, but its place on the Foreign Terrorist Organization (FTO) list is blocking it from achieving its desired global support. According to MEK, it has strived for freedom and human rights, first against the despotic reign of Shah, and now the theocratic tyranny of the ayatollahs (MEK n.d.). It is an anti-fundamentalist Muslim  organization which believes in a democratic, progressive, and tolerant interpretation of Islam, according to which elections and public suffrage are the sole indicators of political legitimacy. The PMOI endeavors for a secular, democratic, and non-nuclear republic, and is committed to free elections, gender equality, and abolition of all discrimination against national and religious minorities (MEK n.d.) Non-nuclear is a key consideration for the United States and other western powers. Iran has increasingly taunted the world with its nuclear program and refuses to deescalate military tensions. In bold statements of aggression, in 2012 alone, Iran has announced two new missiles, an air defense site, and a fleet of ultra-fast gun boats designed to zip into battle against larger wester n fleets. In a twist of fate, MEKs future may lie in the hands of the United States. The United States has until October 1, 2012 to decide if it will delist MEK from the FTO. If MEK is delisted it will enjoy much more freedom of movement around the world and it will be able to legally receive funds from U.S. based sympathizers. It is not unreasonable to think that the U.S. will delist MEK in an effort to undermine the Iranian Government, much like Saddam Hussein offered MEK a home in 1986 to undermine Iran during the Iran Iraq war. Leadership, Funding and Capabilities Most of MEKs original leadership was arrested and executed in 1971, but Massoud Rajavi escaped death and remains a leader of MEK. Though he has not been seen publicly since 2003, his wife, Maryam Rajavi, is the public face of the MEK in her role as president-elect of the National Council of Resistance of Iran (Jones 2012). In the past four decades the group has used several methods to raise funds for its campaign. Some methods have made the group infamous and add to the list of reasons that the U.S. and several other nations have classified it as a Foreign Terrorist Organization. MEK has long been skilled in deception and has used that skill to affect its fund raising efforts. For example, its solicitation of funds for Iranian refugees, child welfare, and childrens medical services proven to be fraudulent (FBI n.d.). Until 2003, MEK had a substantial armory due to its previous relationship  with Saddam Hussein. Its inventory often included artillery, tanks, aircraft, rocket launchers, rifles, mortars, shells, rockets, land mines, and bullets (FBI n.d.). In 2003, the United States bombed MEK camps and bunkers based on their relationship to Saddam Hussein and the idea that they posed a significant threat with their armaments. MEK members no longer have easy access to such large stockpiles of arms. MEK is now facing deportation from its Iraqi camp Ashraf and remains disarmed. Operating Bases, Support Bases, Strengths MEK has moved its headquarters over the years as a necessary part of survival. Originally founded in Tehran, it moved to Paris after the 1979 Iranian Revolution. The group had allied with the Ayatollah Khomeini, but Khomeini forced the group out in fear of opposition. In 1986 Saddam Hussein invited the group to relocate to camp Ashraf. Iraq was at war with Iran, and relocating the group from Paris to Iraq was Husseins method of undermining Iran. At the start of the U.S. led war in Iraq under Operation Iraqi Freedom, the group was classified as enemy combatants and subsequently confined to Camp Ashraf, where approximately 3,000 MEK now live (Carter 2011). The new government of Iraq has declared that all members of MEK must leave the country, and the U.N. is currently working to resettle the group elsewhere. For the moment MEK enjoys limited support from sympathizers around the world, but it is stateless which is both a strength and a weakness. The U.N., citing international law, will not allow the Iraqi government to force members to leave Iraq or force repatriation until members have a suitable place to live. This predicament brings MEK some publicity and sympathy for their cause, but Iraqs determination to expel MEK could not have occurred at a worse time. With June 2013 elections nearing, increasing tension with western military powers, and an imminent Israeli preemptive strike against Iranian nuclear targets, MEK leadership must act swiftly to ensure its place in the 2013 elections. PART II RED TEAM ANALYSIS Why Use Red Team Analysis? Given the complex dynamics of the Iranian situation, analysts should use  the Red Team Analysis technique in order to best predict what course(s) of action MEK leadership will take to assume control of the government. By empathizing with the MEK leadership analysts can gain better insight to most likely courses of action. The end state of this analytic technique is to provide Congress and the President with an accurate forecast of MEKs courses of action so that the United States may apply the appropriate short and long term foreign policy in the Middle East. Since MEK desires a peaceful, tolerant Iran that can only be legitimized via free elections and public suffrage, it cannot take control of the nation by force. Therefore, MEKs options are limited and it must patiently await the 2013 elections regardless of the growing concern of military action and economic sanctions. As President Ahmadinejad continues to escalate military tension with western nations and Israel, through missile, nuclear, and naval programs (Torbati 2012). MEK leadership must carefully calculate how to win popular Iranian support, world support, and financial backing all without ever appearing to be influenced by western powers as previous Iranian leaders had. Restate Current MEK Goals Red Team Analysis must begin with placing oneself in the shoes of MEK leadership. The key to determining any viable course of action is to outline clear goals or milestones. With clear goals, analysts can categorize what actions and strategies are available and likely. According to MEKs official website, its current goals, rather, solution to the western-Iranian strife is to rid the region and the world of the nightmare of the Islamic fundamentalists armed with nuclear weapons [by] democratic change in Iran by the people and the Resistance (Rajavi 2010). This stated goal remains largely unchanged from its 1970s goal. The main difference now is that MEK is more tolerant of western aid, albeit, so long as they do not become overly influenced by it. Key Assumptions Check Paramount to the analytic process is a key assumptions check. This step allows analysts to clearly document the start point of their cognitive map as well as allowing time to consider information that challenges cognitive  biases. The key assumptions must be listed in such a way that analysts feel like MEK leaders would if trying to decide how to realize their stated goal of taking control of the Iranian government. Below is a list of key assumptions in this Red Team Analysis. Previous Failures. All previous attempts to control government have failed beginning with the overthrow of the Shah in 1979. This assumption is critical because the MEK believed the Ayatollah Khomeini was their ally. They were betrayed. They banded together only to be exiled within two years and many members were arrested and executed while Khomeini consolidated power. The experience likely taught MEK to distrust any potential allies within the current regime. History of Violence. During the 1960s the Shah used force and violence against government opposition. Uprisings in the 1970s culminated in the exile of the Shah, but into the 1980s MEK fought the new Iranian government. During the Iraq-Iran war that began in the early 1980s, MEK settled just north of Baghdad and fought a cross border war with the clerical regime for twenty more years. Only at the turn of the century did MEK publicly denounce violence and terrorist tactics. The significance is that, while MEK members are accepting of risk and violence, they have matured and realize that they do not operate in a vacuum. MEK understands the need for global acceptance. HUMINT Value. MEK can offer HUMINT to the U.S. No other organization with detailed knowledge of Iran and its military and political system is willing to provide such information to western powers. The U.S. has had extremely limited success installing or recruiting agents in Iran because of extreme scrutiny that outsiders face, and CIA informants are usually discovered due to poor tradecraft (Hosenball 2011). MEK however, has family, friends, sympathizers and safe houses inside Iran. As well, since the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 MEK has received training, equipment and funds to carry out attacks inside Iran and to collaborate with U.S. and Israeli intelligence services (Joshi 2012). MEKs HUMINT value is possibly the most important aspect for western powers. MEK leadership understands the power they hold and must leverage it wisely. Knowledge of U.S. Tactics Techniques and Procedures. MEK leaders are aware of U.S. TTPs at the small unit tactics level up through executive branch policymaking. They will play on the American and Israeli fears of a nuclear armed Iran while leveraging their HUMINT and political value to affect their delisting from the FTO. Once  delisted they wi ll be able to receive more funding from international sources, thus requiring less U.S. support and will become less responsive to U.S. demands. Western Support: Critical For Financing, Opposite of Ideology Being listed on the U.S. Foreign Terrorist Organization list impedes MEKs financing efforts. In order to gain power they must be delisted decade long endeavor thus far. Its members have cooperated with Israeli and U.S. intelligence services since 2003 in an effort to gain support and take over the political regime in Iran, but its original ideology was very much opposed to any western influence. MEK must exercise extreme caution to ensure that the group does not appear to be another puppet regime of the U.S and especially not in collaboration with Israel. If threatened with defeat, the current regime will likely try to depict MEK as a puppet regime, and if the U.S. loses influence it may also try to publicize MEKs cooperation in an effort to decrease its credibility among Iranians. Enormity of the Situation. MEK is currently stateless. Though the U.N. has petitioned several governments to accept MEK members, most have declined to accept them. With nowhere to go MEK is desperate to g ain power in Iran because it belongs to no other state. If they fail the Iranian regime will likely execute them, despite President Ahmadinejads amnesty offer. Data Collection Options Of the many collection options the United States has at its disposal, a handful stand out as being the most practical. HUMINT may be the best collection option because it offers an inside look at MEK and the status of the Iranian nuclear and defense programs as well as the mentality and plans of regime leaders. For example, an undercover agent, code named Wally, joined the Revolutionary Guard in the 1980s and gave the CIA plans, ideology, weaponry etc, and he was able to recruit several more members of the Revolutionary Guard to turn informer for the CIA (Zucchino 2012). OSINT is another extremely useful collection option, which can provide detailed atmospherics and help depict the support, or lack thereof, of the general public to the current and possible successor regimes. OSINT can also offer information on Irans defensive and offensive capabilities as depicted  in the recent revelation that Iran has cloned a fleet of ultra-fast gun boats. Originally produced in England, the Bradstone Challenger (Bladerunner) is a speedboat with a revolutionary hull design that affords it great stability at high speeds. Iran illicitly purchased a Bladerunner in 2009, reverse engineered the design, and manufactured its own fleet which the Navy modified to launch torpedoes and missiles at full speed. The Bladerunner fleet, combined with an array of heavily armed small craft, including unmanned high-speed Ya Mahdi vessels, Bavar 2 flying boats, Seraj-1 high-speed patrol boats and Zolfaghar fast attack craft (Stock 2012) poses a significant threat to the Strait of H ormuz and western naval forces with much larger and slower vessels. SIGINT and MASINT will likely have to wait until military confrontation begins in order to be relevant. MEKs equipment inventory is very limited, so SIGINT and MASINT should not be a top priority. GEOINT is relevant in that it depicts the correlation of key terrain to strategic targets and political issues. For example, GEOINT can depict which routes MEK would likely take in order to transit to Tehran or flee Iraq in other ways. It also helps answer contingency operation questions such as, what if MEK takes control of the military and attempts to hold the Strait of Hormuz ransom? In a more tactical situation GEOINT can provide detailed dimensions of hideouts and buildings for the U.S. to plan an attack should the need arise. Use of the Intelligence Community The CIA is the best is the best agency to use to handle collection on MEK. The agency has more than half a century of experience in working with sources and is best trained in managing counterintelligence and misinformation techniques. Already, the CIA has worked with MEK members since 2002 when MEK publicized Irans underground Uranium enrichment program. Training MEK members in tradecraft techniques and supporting their cross-border subversion tactics allows the CIA to wage a proxy war with Iran while strengthening its relationship and gaining more human intelligence on both MEK and Iran. No other agency within the United States has the resources to foster this type of relationship with MEK. Most Effective Intelligence Analysis Strategies The effective intelligence strategy to use for evaluating MEK and forecasting its actions is to begin with Analysis of Competing Hypotheses and follow those results with the Devils Advocacy method. Analysis of Competing Hypotheses. ACH is ideal for evaluating MEK because there are diverse dynamics involved in forecasting MEK actions. Considering that the U.S. must decide to keep or delist MEK from the FTO on October 1, 2012, ACH would provide decision makers with a documented line of reasoning to support an Intelligence Forecast. Devils Advocacy. The prevailing consensus in Washington is that MEK has morphed from a militant group to a political group in the past decade and will be a more western friendly regime if it comes to power. But what if MEK is playing the west to gain power now, while secretly planning to spread its 1979 revolutionary ideology across the Middle East and North Africa in an attempt to reestablish Persian dominance? It seems that the west is focused first on cou ntering a nuclear threat and second on countering any blocking of the Hormuz Strait. No additional talking points regarding Iran or MEK have received much publicity since 1979. Conclusion MEK is a wild card in the Iran standoff. The United States and other western powers, as well as Israel, must carefully consider how to proceed with MEK relationships. The organization has shown a history of changing allies in order to advance its goals, making it predictable in the sense that they can be counted on to do whatever it takes to survive and take control of the Iranian government. To brush MEK aside may mean dealing with a nuclear armed Iran later, and to support MEK may mean dealing with a provoked Iran now. No matter the decision, each carries its own implications for U.S. foreign policy. Washington must ultimately decide between the lesser of two evils. Bibliography Carter, Chelsea. U.N., Iraq agree to temporary relocation of Iranian exiles. CNN, December 26, 2011. http://articles.cnn.com/2011-12-26/middleeast/world_meast_iraq-camp-ashraf-re location_1_camp-ashraf-ashraf-residents-mek/2?_s=PM:MIDDLEEAST (accessed July 28, 2012). FBI. Seven Plead Guilty to Providing Material Support to Designated Foreign Terrorist Organization. FBI. http://www.fbi.gov/losangeles/press-releases/2009/la042809a.htm (accessed July 29, 2012). Goulka, Jeremiah, et al. The Mujahedin-e Khalq in Iraq: A Policy Conundrum. RAND Corporation: Santa Monica, 2009. Hosenball, Mark. Hezbollah, Iran uncover CIA informants. Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/21/us-cia-hezbollah-idUSTRE7AK2MQ20111121 (accessed August 23, 2012). Jones, Owen Bennet. An Iranian mystery: Just who are the MEK?BBC News. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-17615065 (accessed July 30, 2012). Joshi, Shashank. Iran and the Mujahedin e Khalq (MEK). Harvard University Department of Government. http://shashankjoshi.wordpress.com/2012/05/30/iran-and-the-mujahedin-e-khalq-mek/ (accessed August 24, 2012). Masters, Jonathan. Mujahadeen-e-Khalq (MEK) (aka Peoples Mujahedin of Iran or PMOI). Council on Foreign Relations, July 18, 2012. http://www.cfr.org/iran/mujahadeen-e-khalq-mek-aka-peoples-mujahedin-iran-pmoi/p9158 (accessed July 24, 2012). MEK. Camp Ashraf: About Us. MEK. http://www.campashraf.org/about/camp-ashraf/ (accessed July 30, 2012). Rajavi, Maryam. Comprehensive sanctions is the essential first step, regime change is the final solution. Peoples Mojahedin Organization of Iran. http://www.mojahedin.org/pagesen/detailsNews.aspx?newsid=9551 (accessed August 22, 2012).

Japanese Policing Is Illustrated Criminology Essay

Japanese Policing Is Illustrated Criminology Essay Following the establishment of the London metropolitan police by Sir Robert Peel in 1829, the arrangement of police forces throughout the country was a cumulative process, with each anew local police force operating according to the needs of individual communities they served. Hence, policing was part of the self-directed process insofar as was it was proposed to reflect the needs of the public. In that history, the roots of English policing lay in a particular functionary. The principles of community oriented policing in Britain in addition to several important aspects of its practice e.g. neighbourhood patrols can be traced to the creation of professional policing in the nineteenth century and the ways in which the police mandate was established. Early authors of British policing such as Peel established the notion that effective policing can only be attained with the consent of the community. Established in 1829, The Peelian Principles currently are applicable and used in law enforcement agencies and community policing organizations across the world today. The principles preserve the notion of policing by consent which has been at the core of British policing since. The second and third principles state that the police would not be able to operate without the active co-operation of the community (ACPO 2012). Community policing involves and is seemingly justified as necessary by the Peelian Principles stated above. This remains the case, but the diffi culties facing communities alongside the police have altered over time. In the Peelian model, found in Britain, the police are less pervasive of community than their authoritarian counterparts and, while it is accepted that they do perform an array of servicing tasks, police organizations are more generally equipped towards emergency response and law enforcement than routine intervention in neighbourhood life. In Eastern organisations such as Japan, argues Bayley (1982, police are used as an important element in social control, but in contrast with the other two models, tends to maintain order through harnessing the forces of informal social control. Rather than the use of robust and legal authority, they cultivate community involvement in crime control through extensive, service-style interactions with the community by example and persuasion allowing them to become an integrated part of the Japanese community in which they can regularly advise, engage and mediate functions (Bayley 1976). This conforms systematically to the ideal of the koban In western models of community policing the main function of the police is to maintain order, and where the citizen commonly fails to recognise the legitimacy of the state and its agents, the police. In such societies, the police may carry out a range of administrative tasks on behalf of the state, but rarely provide a public service that addresses the needs of the community. In comparison, a community-oriented system like Japan is one where the main function of the police is to provide a public service that addresses the wider needs of the community as distinguished by the Koban and Chuzaisho. The emphasis here is more on crime as indicative of community problems as an affront to authority. Such a model adopts that the police are afforded considerable legitimacy by local communities. Community policing elements in UK are, for example, incorporated in the Crime and Disorder Act 1998. It facilitates for the administration of crime surveys to organise local priorities in respect to crime and disorder. The English tradition of high levels of discretion and decentralisation of the police service also fit a community-oriented policing style. Community policing is also in operation, albeit sometimes seemingly in disguise, in Sweden, Norway and the Netherlands. When introduced in western societies it often means that a shift is made towards either more local efforts on crime prevention, a reprioritisation of non-emergency services, increased public accountability or a decentralisation of decision-making on policing (Skolnick and Bayley 1988). Police officers seem to have a great deal of respect in Japan, and koban officers are generally proud of their neighbourhood and the work they do. Needless to say, in many countries around the globe this is not quite the case. Lack of trust between police and citizens will make effective community policing almost impossible. For example following Scarman report (Scarman 1981) on Brixton riots, it focused attention on the needs for the police to develop closer engagements with members of the communities that they served. This led to the sense police were disconnected from the community and as a consequence they lacked the legitimacy required to police by consent. Undeniably Bennett describes community policing as its most basic, a greater working partnership between the police and the public (Bennett 1994: 224). Community police calls for much more decentralisation in the UKs policing system like US which has over 20,000 policing agencies throughout the country (Casey 2010) which is s imilar to the Japanese policing structure where police officers are seen as state servants. After the World War two, the US authorities initiated wide changes in Japan in rebuilding its police systems as a decentralized democratic body to impose a local system of policing from its invasive neighbourhood function. Neighbourhood policing has become the latest model of community policing in the UK, whilst community policing has been a prevalent model in the USA it hasnt been as noteworthy in the UK. Nevertheless during the early 2000s there was growing anxiety to the rise in the publics perception of crime. This eventually led to the development of the National Reassurance Policing Programme (NRPP) which developed a set of practical policing strategies that was orientated, largely, at reducing fear of crime midst the community. The Neighbourhood Policing model developed entirely out of the NRRP, and is undertaking with the extension of the policing family in order to provide each neighbourhood a local policing team that is both visible and accessible (Home Office 2008) much like the koban concept of community orientated policing in Japan where there are situated locally to help police the community. John Alderson (1979), a former chief constable argued that society was changing and that policing styles had to reflect this. Society was becoming free, permissive and participatory and authoritarian policing styles were no longer applicable (Alderson 1979: 376). His vision for the future of policing consisted of important aims that are still relevant in contemporary community policing styles for instance neighbourhood policing. In addition his suggestions placed emphasis on a more pro-active style of policing that works with the public in their communities again much like the koban concept of community oriented policing where they take a much more proactive role in taking a real interest to the local community needs of crime and disorder that is based upon active co-operation by preference to policing by consent. As for crime and community relations, at a time when policing in the UK and USA had drifted into more reactive and detached modes, the Japanese koban appeared to offer a model of community policing at its best and most effective. The Japanese Police Bureau was established in 1874 under the Ministry of Home Affairs. Japanese police were supposedly oppressive and even instituted a thought control operation to blot out any thinking contrary to overt support of the regime in power (Kanfman 1975: 17). After the Second World War, the US assisted Japan in rebuilding its police systems as a decentralized democratic body in an attempt to reduce the power of the police to impose a local system of policing. However these reforms were short lived and by 1954, Japan enacted a Police Law to restructure the police appropriate to cultural its needs (Hoffman 1982; Kanfman 1975) . By far the most well-known of the alternative models to the west is the koban structure of community policing in Japan. However, it contains a similar tradition of historical roots, of police integration with homogeneous communities of citizens, and of effectiveness. The Japanese koban offers a legitimate alternative to present day community policing in Western accounts. To serve local communities, the Japanese have local level substations, known as koban and chuzaisho, a residential police box in the rural areas. In the West the Police officers that would closely resemble the Japanese Chuzaisho officers are the sheriffs in the United States. The unit is typically a two-storey building, recognisable by the traditional red lamp. Koban officers normally do not drive around in patrol cars but are often on foot. This encourages frequent interactions with the community, where issues of crime are not the forefront, similarly with PCSOs in the UK who are highly visible in the communities pr edominantly on foot or cycle patrol. Yano (1989: 127) describes them as All day, policemen at the koban (police boxes) keep watch on the neighbourhood, answers questions, and help those who are in need of assistance. This provides a local presence that is missing in many western societies, although somewhat parallel to UKs concept of neighbourhood teams in the UK. The core purpose of PCSOs is to support Neighbourhood Policing teams in their neighbourhood thus spending the majority of their time within neighbourhoods (NPIA 2008) therefore dealing with community priorities and concerns, through community engagement and effective problem solving but not wholly reminiscent of the koban community orientated policing concept. Kobans form the first line of police response to the public and as such the scope of general assistance is wide. Koban officers may lend out umbrellas, may act as a lost and found office and often run various community activities e.g. distribution of local letters (Leishman 1999) to accepting a range of welfare and social service responsibilities. These officers attempt to become a part of the community, and their families often contribute in performing these jobs whilst in Britain, PCSOs, are uniformed support staffs that help officers tackle issues such as vandalism and antisocial behaviour. The police officers also administer surveys. Police officers conduct twice-yearly house-by-house district surveys on residents for various information e.g. names, occupations, ages, vehicle registration numbers etc. which has almost become a custom in the Japanese culture as its voluntary and rarely opposed. This type of community policing practiced in Japan would create a breach of civil liber ties in the Western community policing models The Koban and Chuzaisho system remains the foundation of Japans centralized police system. In contrast to community policing in western world three common characteristics exist between police box operations relative to the practices of Japanese corporations. In essence, Japanese community policing is meditative of Japanese culture whereas the Peelian model of crime-fighting, much adapted according to local national and cultural circumstances. The result historically was a patchwork of different police organizations concerned to enforce social order in communities from a local source. The theme of Japanese culture is groupism which interconnects the two key concepts of ie and mura. These two ideas cast Japan as one big family, in which each member is required to sacrifice their interest for the purpose of group welfare. Consistent with the concept of groupism, urban police boxes play a central role in carrying out police affairs as a team, relative to the Japanese community. Crime con trol is perceived to be a collective responsibility, a community matter, and not a function solely allocated to the local or state authorities like in the UK. Secondly, samurai heritage forms seniority, the basis of promotion. In the work place, i.e. police officers are promoted on the basis of seniority rather than ability in contrast to that of the UK. Thirdly, the career of a Japanese police officer is a lifetime commitment for both the officer and his family. Like all other professions in Japan, the job directs all other aspects of public and private life whereas in the UK police officers are required to retire after thirty years of service (Alarid Wang 1997). From the above it illustrates Japans is culturally very homogeneous as well as inclusive unlike the west. Apart from ethnic homogeneity, there is a supposed unity in social norms. Japanese culture places significant emphasis on the importance of harmony. Evidently, this is conducive to a community oriented policing style in Japan (Castberg 1990).