Physiological adaptations to Exercise of an Aerobic Training Program Essay Example for Free

Physiological adaptations to Exercise of an Aerobic Training Program Essay Fitness is popular nowadays, as its profitability to health, beauty, physical and psychological state of a person has was proved by multiple research and practice long time ago. However, one should be really careful in choosing an aerobic training program. There are lots of factors to think about and keep in mind while selecting an appropriate aerobic training program. First of all, let us define what aerobic training is. They distinguish two types of exercise in physical exercise aerobic and anaerobic. Aerobic literally means with oxygen and refers to the use of oxygen in muscles energy-generating process. Aerobic exercise includes any type of exercise, typically those performed at moderate levels of intensity for extended periods of time, that maintains an increased heart rate. The aerobic exercises are so popular nowaday due to the fact, that this is by far the most effective way of burning fat: in aerobic exercise oxygen is used to burn fats and glucose in order to produce adenosine triphosphate, the basic energy carrier for all cells. There are various types of aerobic exercise. The key point in aerobic exercise that it is performed over a long period of time. Thus, running a long distance at a moderate pacem for example, is an aerobic exercise, while sprinting is not (Donatelle). The objective of this paper is to examine one of the many aerobic training programs and the psysiological adaptations of the various systems of the body, occuring over a lengthy course (6 months), and also acute responses to exercise. The period of 6 months was chosen, because this period is usually enough for initial permanent adaptation of the body to exercise and displaying first major physiological changes. Let us choose group aerobic training program as an example. The program consists in learning the combinations of various degree of complexity (basic movements of classical aerobics). The course is designed for regular training, 55 minutes, 3 times a week. Among the recognized benefits of this training course are the following: †¢ Strengthening the muscles involved in respiration, to facilitate the flow of air in and out of the lungs, Strengthening and enlarging the heart muscle, to improve its pumping efficiency and reduce the resting heart rate, †¢ Toning muscles throughout the body, which can improve overall circulation and reduce blood pressure, †¢ Increasing the total number of red blood cells in the body, to facilitate transport of oxygen throughout the body, †¢ Increased storage of energy molecules such as fats and carbohydrates within the muscles, allowing for increased endurance, †¢ Neovascularization of the muscle sarcomeres to increase blood flow through the muscles. As a result, these aerobic exercises, just like many other aerobic training courses, reduce the risk of death due to cardiovascular problems. Besides, they stimulate bone groth and reduce the risk of osteoporosis. Aerobic exercise is, however, an extremely valuable component of a balanced exercise programme and is good for cardiovascular health, despite the fact that it somewhat neglects muscular strength, especially upper-body muscular strength development. Over a course of any training, there are some processes, going on in an athlete’s body – the processes of adaptation. There are several key concepts of physiological adaptation, relevant to the aerobic training program examined: the quality of muscle tissue can change after only several workouts; the type of exercise stimulus causes specific adaptations; genetic potential dictates the absolute magnitude of training adaptation; smaller and smaller gains are observed as a person reaches their genetic potential; with training, performance gains cause changes in more than one physiological system; adaptational responses are dynamic and are related to an individuals age and stage of physical development. Magnitude of gain is related to the size of the athlete’s adaptational window; the amount of adaptation is related to the effectiveness of the exercise prescription. Variation is necessary to keep the exercise stimulus effective in eliciting positive changes. We can distinguish short-term adaptation and long-term adaptation. Short –term adaptation is a change of physical condition and physiological processes, going on in the body of an athlete immediately after a training. Metabolic activity and increased muscle soreness are some of them. As far as metabolism is concerned, aerobics does not notably increase the resting metabolic rate as much as some forms of weight-training, and may therefore be less effective at reducing obesity. However, this form of exercise also allows for longer, more frequent activity and consumes more energy when the individual is active. In addition, the metabolic activity of an individual is heightened for several hours following a bout of aerobic activity. Aerobic training course of this type can also be used by individuals with anorexia as a means of suppressing appetite, since aerobic exercise increases glucose and fatty acids in the blood by stimulating tissues to release their energy stores. While there is some support for exercising while hungry as a means of tapping into fat stores, most evidence is equivocal. In addition, performance can be impaired by lack of nutrients, which can impair training effects. Among other impacts on metabolism we may mention metabolic energy stores changes: stored creatine phosphate, ATP, triglycerides and glycogen increase in the course of aerobic training. This is both short- and long-term change (Foran, 57-64). There are also other long-term effects on the body. Let us examine some of them, arranged in groups according to body parts or other physiolocal parametres, affected by the training. All of them are effects of an above-mentioned aerobic training course. Performance: This parameter includes changes in general callisthenics. Here we can mention increase of muscle endurance (low power output), aerobic power, sprint speed (very slight increase)and practically no change in muschle strength and anaerobic power. Body composition The aerobic training course does not influence the amount of fat free mass of a person, however, it decreases percent body fat. Muscle Fiber The aerobic training course allows for capillary density increase, mitochondrial density increase and convertion of muscle fiber to type II. However, the training course does not change the muscle fiber size or fast heavy chain myosin. Aerobic training course also has some influence on bone and connective tissues of the body. Though bone dencity practically does not change with aerobic exercises, some changes in collagen content, tendon strength and ligament strength especially might occur.

Costs and benefits of Globalisation on Indias Economy

Costs and benefits of Globalisation on Indias Economy Introduction In this essay we are about to go Global. Recent events on the financial market show how interdependent the world is. Common value should not be forbid but what about common losses. Who should be responsible for them? Many blame globalisation. What is it and does the world has other options to develop. Should we return to the strategies of the past? Or should we continue to live through an age of essential economic revolution? The term globalisation generates constant debates and controversies. But most of those who talk about globalisation are not even aware of its fundamentals. The term globalisation is used rather vaguely. Globalisation is the one specific modality of international integration. Technology has definitely changed the means of way we live and also the ways in which the business is done in world today. The country by means of internet connection and enthusiastic workers can have access to unlimited jobs and industries. Lets imagine a picture of a world where all limitations are disappearing. A world where there are no boundaries and where competition can come from anywhere. Thats the world where our future lies. To make this world a healthier place globalisation is going to play a very important role. There are some who believe that we must try to turn our back on this novel world. They also think that the chance to preserve our living standard is to make a fortress around the country and stop trading and depend only on our own industries. But at present it is impossible to turn back the waves of globalisation but in doing so we can actually make ourselves worst off. So instead of fearing the future we should embrace it. Globalisation and Structure of Indian Economy The best definition of globalisation has been expressed through a poem by Canadian economist Gerald Helleiner- The poor complain, they always do, but that is just idle chatter. Our system (globalisation) brings reward to all, at least to all who matter. Broadly speaking the term globalisation is most definitely an economic process. Even though it is modeled as a way of bringing the world together, globalisation is all about the business community breaking down the remaining barriers to the free flow of its capital around the world. It fundamentally means opening up of any country economy system and its integration among the other economies of the world. It involves liberalism and implementation of economic liberalization policies and reforms to promote the progression of private sector. The word globalisation itself means something new is happening to the world. The world is becoming a single place and experiencing global practices, values and technologies that are shaping people lives to the point that we are entering a global age. For India, there are ample confusions about the costs and benefits of globalisation. Generally Indians think that as the nation state has laid down their arms to globalisation all the perils are hurting and hunting. Data Source Projection: VMW Analytic ServicesIndias population is fast approaching a billion; this fact is easy to read but much more difficult to absorb one thousand million people, each of whom sees the world in a slightly or radically different way from the others. Since Indian independence in 1947, the economy of India has increased almost exponentially (Refer Fig. 1). From early 1990s, different governments have adopted inward oriented development strategies i.e. the state encouraging an economy through self sufficiency and a dominant role in the economy via state planning. Forces of demand and supply were not allowed to play any key role in resource allocation. ImportsAfter 1991 balance-of-payments crisis, where foreign currency reserves fell to $1 billion inflation went high to 17%, India laid numbers of stabilization-cum-structural adjustment measures with widespread effects. The main aim was to remerge the Indian economy with the world economy by reducing barriers to trade and investment, and deregulation of a highly bureaucratized economy. The Foreign Direct Investment was also encouraged to reduce the countrys reliance on debt-creating capital inflows, simultaneously renovating Indias ancient technologies and advancing easily into global markets. Exports India GDP growth from 1991 2007. Since then the real export growth rates of goods and services in 2006 and 2007 record high levels: 8.6% and 9.7% (Refer Fig. 2). The propellant growth of exports doubled Indias share in world exports of goods and services from 0.5% in 1991 to almost 1.7% in 2007. Even India imported 11.4% more goods in 2006 and 13% in 2007 as compared to the average growth rate from 1995 to 2005 (11.3%). As a result, Indias trade ratio of imports plus exports to GDP has twofold since 1991, from 16.5% to 45% in 2007. Regardless the unfinished reform agenda, Indias GDP growth (Refer Fig. 3) has increased >9% over the past 3 years, by an average of 5.8% annually during the period 1991-2004. It contributes nearly 2% to world GDP and around 1% to world exports of goods and services (Source: World Development Indicators). Consistent with excellent growth, per capita incomes were doubled from 1990 to 2007 and poverty dropped from 46% in 1986 to 36% in 2000. However, poverty remains a grave problem. Recently several economists and lobbyists have compared Indian economy with that of China but its progress path has been significantly different from Chinas. Indeed, it has been also very different from that followed earlier by Japan, Korea and the other Asian giants. Firstly, the recent economic rise in India is largely thanks to services rather than manufacturing sector. India has became a global player in several services sectors such as IT and business process outsourcing, while its manufacturing sector keep suffering from low productivity. Secondly, the 2/3rd of Indias population still rely on agriculture for a living as compared other Asian countries and thirdly, India try to remains closed to trade in comparison to other developing and emerging countries. Even FDI inflows have also ten folded in last two decades. It has been tripled since 2005 and in 2007 it was around $23 billion (Data Source: Government of India, Ministry of Finance, Economic survey). But India is not yet as present in the Central and Eastern Europe markets as China is. Its share in the European market was 0.7% (2006), almost unchanged from 1990s. However, Chinas share in these markets has increased sharply from 1.3% in 1992 to 5.7% in 2006 (Data Source: OECD). Indian has the potential and should make the efforts to move from good growth to rapid constant growth. The problem in India lies in the spurring productivity which is badly affected by the low education and health reforms and also by the petite openness of the Indian economy. Indias weak infrastructure has hurt the booming potential of Indian production. From undependable energy, lacking water supply to bad road and train conditions, infrastructure shortages have created high business costs across the sectors (Source : OECD, 2007c). Benefits and Costs of Globalisation on Indian Economy Globalisation has been a classical process with ups and downs. Its growth has been largely led by the technological forces in the fields of transport and communication. The flow of trade has been frequent and there are lesser barriers for the people across the geographical boundaries. There are less tax barriers and fewer limitations on fund flows. India is no exception to globalisation. In year 1991, when we were neck-deep in financial deficit, very high inflation (around 17%), balance of payments crisis and low industrial production, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) bailed us out with significant loans with assistant Structural Adjustment Program (SAP). This guided in Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation. Indian Economy has undergone many important reforms in the 1990s. The LPG model has helped the Indian economy to grow rapidly and become internationally competitive. From early 1991, a new epoch has dawned for India and its huge population. This formidable phase of economic evolution has had a wonderful impact on the overall Indias economic development. All major sectors of the economy have improved dramatically and its effects over the last decade can hardly be ignored. Moreover, it has marked the dawn of the real integration of Indians economy into Worlds economy. Globalisation has created many employments bought large investments to India. Our economy has been on the rise at good rates for the past few years many new prospects have opened up for India. We have highly benefited from economies of scale. The change in global barriers has permitted the companies to profit from the largest cheapest labor market, raw material and technology. Foreign businesses have significantly augmented their investments in Indian industries. The salaries of industrial labor have improved largely; therefore, the lock outs and strikes have declined sharply as labor is happy. Now days business market has no boundaries and companies can promote their products globally. This has helped the Indian companies to lay hand on global technologies which has certainly increased our qualities of living standards. Indian Entrepreneurs has been more aware about the competitors, recent trends and quality of products. The competition between the global companies can be seen in the improve qualities of the brands and services to the customer. Presently, we can talk about the story of two Indias: We have the best of times; we have the worst of times. There is bright prosperity, there is high poverty. We have stunning 5 star hotels with dark ill-starred homes. Globalisation gave us everything, globalisation gave us nothing. Although Rajiv Gandhi government, the sixth prime minister of India, introduced some economic reforms between 1985 -1989 but it was the Narasimha Rao government, ninth prime minister of India from 1991-1996, that gave a exact shape and started the novel economic reforms in India. Below are the highlights of some extreme benefits of globalisation on Indian Economy: Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate: The rate of increase of Indias real GDP was low during 1980-90 (5.6%) to 1993-2001 (7%). But in the last few years, the GDP annual growth rate in India has been remarkable i.e. 7.5% (2003-2004), 8.5% (2004-2005), 9% (2005-2006) and 9.2% (2006-2007) (Ref Fig. 3). Present P.M. Dr. Manmohan Singh is certain to have a 10% increase in the GDP for 11th five year plan (2007 2012). In 2006-2007, the sectors contributing highest in GDP growth are Industry sector (26%), Service sector (55%) and Agriculture sector (19%) (Ref Fig. 4). The increase in GDP has in fact helped to increase the foreign exchange reserves from $39 billion (2000-01), $107 billion (2003-04), $145 billion (2005-06), $200 billion (2007-2008) to around $268 billion on 1st February 2011 (Source: IMF). Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): Since early 2003, Indias FDI promotion board is officially run by government i.e. Ministries of Economic and Finance. Since then there has been drastic reforms in the rules and regulations of FDI in India. The FDI is now acknowledged as a key driver of development in the country. India is ranked 2nd in international FDI in year 2010 behind 1st ranked China and ahead of Brazil Russia and it will continue to be in the top 5 destinations to draw global investors during 2010-12 (Source: World Investment Prospects Survey 2009-2012 by UNCTAD (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development)). India attracted cumulative FDI equity inflows of $122.68 billion from mid 2000 to end 2010, according to the data released by the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP). In October 2010, the FDI inflows were $1,392 million. The figure 5 on next page shows the Indias top cities and sectors which attracted highest FDI inflows in Jan 2008 (Source: DIPP I ndia). The main attractive sectors have been information technology, telecom, services, healthcare and telecommunications. India controls almost 45% of the global outsourcing market with income more than $50 billion. Imports and Exports: The general idea of the independence movement in India (year 1940s), led by great M. Gandhi, was based on the hatred for anything foreign, especially the one originating from Britain. The imported goods were burnt on regular basis and everyone believed that everything can be produced home. The belief was that we can be self reliant and self dependent and import of goods can bring the foreign dominance. In 2009, 7 decades later India ranked 15th in world in terms of import volume and 22nd in the terms of export volume. In 2004 2005 our imports were $107 billion (Ref Table 1), a record increase of around 36% as compared to $79 billion in 2003 2004. The exports also jumped by 24% recording $79 billion as compared to $63 billion the previous fiscal. The oil imports increased by 19% and the import bill zoomed from $21 billion to $29 billion in two fiscal years. Other imports excluding oil were $77 billion in 2004 2005 that is 34% higher than $58 billion in 2003 20 04. Other Benefits: Information Technology (IT) and outsourcing has been given a special status in the growth of Indian economy. The reason may be that the government desires to present our country as a technological advanced nation and to achieve this they must encourage the IT sector. The term special status means that the sector and global / local investors will get many special advantages from the government. Furthermore, the impact of the global economies has influenced the Indian education system over the last few years. Improved educational institutions, hi- tech colleges, advanced schools are the fruits of globalisation. The colleges have implemented the developed teaching technologies, to make the students aware of the latest developments. India is in the 4th position in respect to market capitalization with $894 billion after the US ($17,000 billion), Japan ($4800 billion) and China ($1000billion). India should soon cross the trillion $ mark. Even though we have not so far reached the end of history but globalisation has sure took us closer to the end of geography. The globalisation has not always been fair. The cash flow over the last two decades has been very unsymmetrical. Every $1 of aid money to poor countries, the rich countries get $10. It has deepened the poverty and inequality. It has affected both the social and political stability among and within states. Capital rights are given more advantages over the labor rights. The trade and finance rule are unfair and this has had mixed effects on rich and poor countries. In India, the main casualties of globalisation are the poverty and the agriculture sector. Here are some costs which India paid because of globalisation: Agriculture Sector: Agriculture has always been the strength of the Indian economy. It plays crucial part not only in providing food to people, as well as the supply of raw material to industries and to export trade. 60% of the Indian population works in agriculture sector and however its contribution in GDP is only 20.6%. India agricultural growth continued to drop down from 13% in 2003 to 1% in 2002-2003 (Source: agricoop.nic.in/Agristatistics). This set back in agriculture is in contrary to 6% expansion in Indian economy in last decade. The reasons of this decrease, according to Economic Survey 2006-07, are: less investments, disproportions in fertilizer use, low seeds replacement rate, a distorted incentive system and low post-harvest value addition. Indian farmers are offered almost no subsidiaries and very less help from government. The Indian government has taken no significant measures to negotiate with foreign companies to set up technologies for the farmers assistance. All these factors have led to decrease in the income of the farmers and have increased the rural debts. In 2000, the farmer suicides were registered to 12% of total suicides in the country. Poverty: Though globalisation has drastically improved our living standards but still it doesnt have the significant effect in improving the poverty. According to 2007 Forbes list, the number of billionaires in India has risen to 40 and yet there is 80% of Indias population which lives on less than $2 a day. Nevertheless, Indian government is making lots of efforts to improve poverty in rural areas. They are trying to provide more facilities to the poorer. The 2005 World Bank estimation was that 41% of Indian population live below the international poverty line of $1.25 a day. So India government has still a long way to go to improve the poverty situation of India. Industry: The globalisation has raised a high competition between the foreign companies and domestic companies. As the foreign products being better, the people prefer to buy them instead of Indian ones. This has reduced significantly the amount of profit of India companies. The new technology has reduced the requirement of labor and thus resulted in the cost of their jobs. No doubts that the effects have been positive as well as negative but the Indian government should make such economic policies related to industry that are beneficial and not harmful. Human trafficking and increase in diseases like HIV are also the very high cost paid for globalisation. And the pity is that womens and childrens are among the most exposed to it. Conclusions Globalisation has provided India the opportunity to grow substantially. Though we have to be more careful on the whole as all the economies are linked together and crisis in one economy have drastic effect on others and recent events has confirmed that. But still globalisation has definitely helped India to become a better economy. We have the abilities and skills to adapt and change according to the flow of global market. In the end my keen hope for the betterment and the bright future of our country is to go out and face this globalising world. I am certain that India of 2025 will be a different place. It will be much more leading force in the world economy, than 25 years ago or even at the start of the 21st century.

The Digital Dice Game Project: An Overview

The Digital Dice Game Project: An Overview A traditional dice is a small polyhedral object, usually cubic in shape. It generates a random number in the range of one to six. There are also non cubical dice with different number of faces such as tetrahedrons (four faces), octahedrons (eight faces) or dodecahedrons (twelve faces). A digital dice is an alternative device that can be used to replace the traditional device with the help of a numeric display. It is controlled with the help of a switch. The count will display numbers randomly from one to six on the 7 segment display in a push of the button. 1.1 Rules of the Game: The Digital Dice game consists of two players, Player A and Player B. Both the players, Player A and Player B, are given a switch each to control the dice. In this game, only one player is allowed to play at a time and the input of only one player is counted at a time. A LED indicates the players turn. The output of each players throw is added to the output of their previous throws number. This gives their final score. The maximum count is taken as 30. When any one of the players reaches the maximum count of 30, the Game ends. The player (Player A or Player B) has won the game. The beeper along with a light indicates the players victory. Chapter 2:  Circuit Description This chapter gives a detailed description of the block diagram for the Digital Dice game project. It discusses the main parts and also gives a detailed explanation on the same. 2.1 Block Diagram The main parts of the block diagram as shown in figure 1 are: 2 Clock pulses Random Number Generator Digital Dice Display 2 Adder Circuits (including the seven segment FND display) Game Over disabling circuit Reset switch 2.2 Clock Pulse Clock pulse is a signal used to synchronize the operations of an electronic system. They are continuous and precisely spaced changes in voltage. The main aim of this part in the circuit is to give the appropriate clock pulses to the next circuits to make a progress in the game. For this purpose, 2 clocks have been employed for each player. Here a special circuit has to be employed so as not to allow the player that has already played to play until his opponent has had his chance. This is done by using the Toggling feature of J-K flip-flop (IC 7476). Each of the 2 clock pulses is then ANDED with the 2 outputs of J-K flip-flop which is Q and Q. At any point of time, only one of Q and Q will be HIGH and so only one player will be able to play at a time as per the rules of the game. The clock of the other player being ANDED with zero will be ineffective. The appropriate clock then will pass through the OR gate and into the input clock of the J-K flip-flop, thus toggling it and providing a chance for the other player to play. The output of the OR gate is given to the rest of the entire circuit as a common clock. 2.3 Random Number Generator The main aim of this part is to generate any number between 1 and 6 (inclusive) i.e. 3-bit binary number, similar to a cubic dice where each face represents a number. However, the number generated in this circuit is not in any kind of a predictable sequence and is in a perfectly random similar to an actual dice in such a game. This is facilitated by the use of IC NE-555, which generates series of output clock pulses. The resistors and capacitors surrounding it formulate a particular RC time constant and the IC then continues to generate output clock pulses till the end of this time period. So, when the appropriate clock pulse is obtained from the above discussed clock pulse circuit, the pulses generated by IC NE-555 are fed to the next Integrated Circuit, Binary Ripple Counter (IC 7493). Another Integrated Circuit, Decade Counter (IC 7490) can also be used. The Binary Ripple Counter counts from 0 to 5 i.e. 3-bit numbers provided the MSB (Most significant Bit) of the counter is not considered. After the count reaches five, the Counter resets to zero. When many clock pulses are received by it in a single time-constant period, it counts from 0-5 many times and outputs any of these numbers. This is known as Random Number Generation. However, the numbers obtained from the above procedure are between 0 and 5 (inclusive) and the desired numbers are from 1 6. This is taken into account by including another Integrated circuit, Binary Parallel Adder (IC 7483) which increments the above generated number by 1 as it is between 0 and 5. The output of the Binary Parallel Adder is the final desired random number which is then fed into the Digital Dice-Display circuit as shown in the figure 1. 2.4 Digital Dice Display Circuit The only purpose of this part is to show the face of the Dice corresponding to the number generated by the randomizer circuit. This is done with the help of a BCD 7 Segment decoder which is used to drive a common anode 7 segment display. The output of the above discussed circuit forms the input for the BCD which then enters the input of seven segment decoder. The random number generated by the random number generator circuit will be displayed on the 7 segment display when the button is pushed by a player. The number displayed is any number between 1to 6 in a complete random sequence. 2.5 Adder Circuits This is the core part of this game. All the numbers generated so far should be accounted for each player independently in the form of their score. As discussed earlier, this score gets incremented by each alternate fall of numbers on the dice. The Adder circuit performs this function. The Adder circuit is made up of a group of 3 AND gates. One of the inputs of the AND gates is a bit of the random number generation and the other input is one of Q and Q (outputs of the J K flip-flop as discussed above in the Clock Pulses section). Hence, at a time, the score of only the appropriate player gets incremented by the number on the dice. Whereas the score of the other player remains the same (i.e. gets added by 0). The outputs of the 3 AND gates enter the Integrated Circuit, Binary Parallel Adder (IC 7483) as inputs for A. The Most significant bit (MSB) A is kept grounded. The inputs for B come from the output of the Integrated circuit, 4-bit Register (IC 74194) and these stores the Least significant bit (LSB) of the final score. There are two Binary Parallel Adders and the output of this 1st Adder (IC 7483) is connected to the 2nd Adder (IC 7483), which converts the added binary number into its decimal equivalent and stores the output in the above mentioned 4 Bit register (IC 74194). This conversion is produced with the help of different logic gates (AND and OR gates). When the binary number is greater than 9, 6 (0110) is added to it, else 0 (0000) is added to the number thus generating the equivalent LSB decimal number. Therefore, the LSB remains less than or equal to 9, thus representing the score in decimal form. The same technique is applied to the Most Significant Bit of the score. Here, 1 is added to the MSB of the Binary Parallel Adder (IC 7483), if the above generated binary number is greater than 9. The other input for this 3rd IC-7483 comes from another 4-bit register (IC 74194). Therefore, the MSB can also show decimal numbers from 0 9. The same Most Significant Bit and Least Significant Bit numbers from the Adders are given as input to Integrated circuit, BCD (IC 7447), which is the driver IC to the Seven-Segment LED display. The outputs of this Integrated circuit are fed into the LT-543, to show the corresponding numbers. An important point to be noted here is that the same common clock is given to the above mentioned IC-74194 registers so that they can output the stored numbers each time. 2.6 Game Over Disabling Circuit This part of the block diagram indicates the END of the game, i.e. Game Over. The game is considered to be over once the score of any one of the two players (Player A or Player B) reaches/crosses the score of 30. The second input of the Most Significant Bits of the Most Significant Bit of the decimal score of both the players form the input to the NOR gate. Thus, when any score reaches/crosses 30, the 2nd Most Significant Bit becomes HIGH. Thus NOR output becomes LOW (i.e. In a NOR gate, when any one of the inputs is HIGH, the output is LOW). This is then ANDED with the clock-pulse to be given to the J-K flip-flop. As a result, the J-K flip-flop does not receive any clock. Thus, the toggling feature of the flip flop stops. Thus, the random number generation stops and the Dice-display remain unchanged. And, finally the scores remain fixed. Therefore, the game has come to an end The winning player (Player A or Player B) is identified by the tone of the buzzer/alarm along with a LED to provide an indicating light. This is having one end on the above 2nd Most Significant Bit and the other end grounded. 2.7 Reset Switch This is also a very important part of the game. The function of this switch is to bring the game back to start from any point of time. This is performed with the help of a Combinational Circuit and a Push-to-OFF switch. This is a kind of switch which has its 2 ends always connected, except when pressed/pushed. Thus, one end of the switch is grounded. Therefore, by default this makes the clear inputs of all registers HIGH. Here, the registers employ Active Low Clear inputs. When the switch is not pushed, HIGH clear is fed to the registers via a NOT gate. Therefore, normal functioning of all the registers is obtained. Also, the output drawn from the OR gate then depends on the output from the AND gate (the 2 inputs of the AND gate come from the 2nd Most Significant Bit and 3rd Most Significant Bit of the output of the Binary Ripple Counter, IC 7493). When the switch is pressed, the connection of its 2 ends gets broken and thus making the Clear input to all registers LOW via the NOT gate (i.e. all registers are cleared). Therefore, one of the inputs to the IC 7483 Adders become 0000. And, also the input of the OR gate becomes HIGH, thereby ignoring the 2nd input and thus providing HIGH output to the RO(1) Clear input of the Binary ripple counter, IC 7493. Now, the counter is reset by 2nd Clear input RO(2) as it becomes HIGH, providing 0000 output. This forms the other input of Binary parallel adder, IC 7483. Thus, the Adder circuits display 00 in the 7 segment display. This 0000 output is then carried via the Binary parallel adder, IC 7483 (here the input carry is also 0) to the Dice-display circuit which displays 00. Chapter 3:  Random Number Generation Circuit This chapter explains the circuit diagram required for the random number generation and the digital dice display. It also talks about the working for the same. 3.1 Circuit Diagram The below figure (figure 2) shows the circuit diagram used for the random number generation of a digital dice. 3.2 Operation Figure 2 shows the circuit diagram to generate any random number between 1 and 6 and display it on the 7 segment display. In operation, a clock frequency of 50 Hz is generated by the pulse generator. It is ANDED with the push button. When the push button is pressed, the clock pulse generates a series of clock pulses. The combination of the clock pulse and the push button forms the counter clock for the Binary Ripple Counter (IC 7493). This counter behaves as a Mod 6 Counter and it counts from 0 5. Once the count reaches 5, it resets to zero. Thus, the connection of QB (with value 2) to R0 (1) and QC (with value 4) to R0(2) respectively. The output of this counter is connected to the input A of the Binary Parallel Adder (IC 7483), i.e. QA, QB, QC, QD to A1, A2, A3, A4 respectively. The function of the adder is to add the number 1 (Binary 0001) to the output from the Binary ripple counter. This is done by grounding the pins B1, B2, B3 and the pin B4 is connected to the supply to get a value of 1. The output of the Adder is connected to the BCD 7 segment display, i.e. the pins 9, 6, 12, 15 are connected to pins 7, 1, 2, 6 respectively. Therefore, any number between 1 and 6 is displayed in a totally random manner in the form of its decimal equivalent on the 7 segment display. This completes the random number generation and the Digital dice display parts of the block diagram. 3.3 Components Assembled The following components have been assembled on a Bread Board in order to create a random number display between 1 and 6. 3.3.1 Counter A counter is a device which stores the number of times a particular event or process has occurred, usually in connection with a clock signal. Every counter requires a square wave clock signal to make them count. A square wave clock signal (as shown in figure 3) is a digital waveform with sharp transitions between low (0V) and high (+Vs) voltage, such as the output from a 555  astable timer. Here it comes from the pulse generator. Examples of counting are digital clocks, watches, timers found in a range of appliances from microwave ovens to VCRs and counters are also found in everything from automobiles to test equipments. There are mainly two types of counters: Ripple Counters In a ripple counter, there are a chain of flip-flops with the output of each flip flop forming the input for the next. Every time the input of the flip flop changes from high to low (on the falling edge), the state of the flip flop output changes. Ripple counters mostly count on the falling-edge which is the high to low transition of the clock signal. They use this edge as linking counters becomes easier as the most significant bit (MSB) of one counter can drive the clock input of the next. This whole process occurs because the next bit must change state when the previous bit changes from high to low the point at which a carry must occur to the next bit. The disadvantages of this counter are: There is a slight delay (known as a Ripple Delay) as the effect of the clock ripples through the chain of flip-flops. But in many circuits, this is not a problem as it is far too short to be seen on a display. In a logic system, the connection to the ripple counter outputs will cause false counts which may produce glitches in the logic system and thereby disrupt its operation. For example, a ripple counter changing from 0111 (7) to 1000 (8) will briefly show 0110 (6), 0100 (4) and 0000 (0) before 1000. Synchronous Counter A synchronous counter has a more complex internal structure as compared to a ripple counter. The advantage of this counter over the ripple counter is that it ensures that all its outputs change precisely together on each clock pulse, thereby avoiding the brief false counts which occur with ripple counters. Most synchronous counters count on the rising-edge (refer figure 5) which is the low to high transition of the clock signal. They usually have carry  out and carry  in pins for linking counters without introducing any ripple delays. These counters have a synchronous reset which occurs on the next clock pulse rather than immediately as in a ripple counter. Since reset must be performed on the maximum count required, it is a very important function. 3.3.1.1 Binary Ripple Counter (IC 7493) This is the counter used in the circuit. Figure 3 shows a clock signal driving a 4-bit (0-15) counter. It is connected with LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) to show the state of the clock and counter outputs QA QD. And Q indicates the output. A counter can be used to reduce the frequency of an input signal and thus behaves as a frequency division counter (as shown in figure 7), i.e. they can be used to reduce the frequency of an input (clock) signal. Each stage of a counter halves the frequency, so here the LED on the first output QA flashes at half the frequency of the clock LED, i.e. QA is 1/2, QB flashes at 1/4, QC at 1/8 and QD at 1/16 of the clock frequency. It is usually labeled as Q1, Q2 and so on. Qn is the nth stage of the counter, representing 2n. Division by numbers that are not powers of 2 is possible by resetting counters. Counters can be reset to zero before their maximum count by connecting one (or more) of their outputs to their reset input. The counter is in two sections: Clock A for QA and Clock B for QB, QC and QD. If the reset input is active-low a NOT or NAND gate will be required to produce a low output at the desired count. Active low is indicated by a line drawn above reset. For example:     (say reset-bar). The reset function requires an immediate reset on the next count. 3.3.1.2 Decade Counter (IC 7490): A decade counter (refer figure 8) is a binary counter that is designed to count to 10 or 1010 in binary, i.e. it counts the number of pulses arriving at its input. The number of pulses is counted up till 9 and it appears in binary form on four pins of the IC. When the tenth pulse arrives at the input, the binary output is reset to zero (0000) and a single pulse appears at another output pin. This function is performed due to the fact that the NAND output goes low, and resets the counter to zero. D going low can be a CARRY OUT signal, indicating that there has been a count of ten. So for ten pulses in the input, there is one pulse output. Therefore, the 7490 Decade Counter divides the frequency of the input by ten. And, if this pulse is applied to the input of a second 7490 decade counter, then the second IC will count the pulses from the first IC i.e. for 100 pulses input, there will be one pulse output. 3.3.2 Binary Parallel Adder (IC 7483) The parallel adder precedes the binary counter, i.e. once the counter begins its count from 0 5, it then enters the adder where the binary 0001 is added to it. The central computational element in any circuit is the adder. The function of the parallel adder is to add two n bit numbers together. For this purpose, n full adders should be cascaded with each full adder representing a column in the long addition. The carry signals ripple through the adder from right to left. Figure 9 indicates the working of a logic full adder/ subtractor. The adder circuit has a mode control signal M which determines whether the circuit has to operate as an adder or a subtractor. Each XOR gate receives one input from M and the other input from B, i.e. Bi. The function of the XOR gate is that if both the inputs of the XOR gate is the same, then the output of the XOR gate will be zero and if both the inputs to the XOR gate are different, then the output of the XOR gate will be 1. When M = 0, the output of XOR gate will be Bi ⊕ 0 = Bi. Thus, the addition function takes place, i.e. the circuit performs A plus B (A + B). When M = 1, the output of XOR gate will be Bi ⊕ 1 = Bi. Since it is the complement of B, subtraction function takes place, i.e. A plus 1s complement of B which is the same as A minus B (A B). Every digit position consists of two operands and a carry. The operation of an adder is to add the two operands and the carry-in together. If the result is less than the base, this sum is outputted with a carry-out of 0. 0therwise the base is subtracted from the total of the two operands and the carry-in and this sum is outputted with a carry-out. 3.3.3 BCD 7 segment display decoder Here, the output of the Binary parallel adder forms the input for this BCD 7 segment decoder to display the random number from 1 6. The inputs A D for the BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) display driver are connected from the outputs of the parallel adder. The display driver consists of a network of logic gates to make its outputs a g become high or low. This lights the required segments a g of a 7-segment display as shown in the figure. Usually, a resistor is required in series with each segment to protect the LEDs, 330 or 270 is a suitable value for many displays with a 4.5V to 6V supply. But for this project, only one 270 resistor is used which is connected between 3 (display test) and 8 (ground) pins of the integrated circuit. There are two types of 7-segment displays: Common Cathode (CC or SC): This display consists of all the cathodes connected together. These need a display driver with outputs which become high to light each segment, i.e. they are illuminated with high voltages. For example the IC 4511. Here, there is a connection between the common cathode to 0V. IC 4511 is designed to drive a common cathode display and thus would not work with the common anode display. Common Anode (CA or SA): This display consists of all the LED anodes connected together. These need a display driver with outputs which become low to light each segment, i.e. they are illuminated by connecting with low voltages. For example, IC 7447 (BCD 7 segment decoder) which is the IC used for this project. Here, there is a connection of a resistor in series between the common anode to +Vs. The 7447 chip is used to drive 7 segment display. The input to the 7447 is a binary number DCBA where D is 8s (1000), C is 4s (0100), B is 2s (0010) and A is 1s (0001). The IC 7447 display is intended for BCD (binary coded decimal) which has input values from DCBA = 0000 (0) to DCBA = 1001 (9) (i.e. 0000, 0001, 0010, 0011, 0100, 0101, 0110, 0111, 1000, 1001 in binary). Inputs from 10 to 15 (1010, 1011, 1100, 1101, 1110, 1111 in binary) will light odd display segments. The following functions can be performed on the IC 7447: This IC has an open collector outputs a g, which can sink up to 40mA. A lamp test can be performed on the IC to check if all the segments are in working condition. This is done by keeping the part of the IC low. At this point of time, all the display segments should light (showing number 8). There is another function which is the Blanking Input (). If the blank input is low, then the display will be blank when the count input is zero (0000). This can be used to blank leading zeros when there are several display digits driven by a chain of counters. The blank  output can be achieved by connecting the blank  input of the next display down the chain (i.e. the next most significant digit). Also, a function stands for Ripple Blanking Input. When is low and DCBA = 0000, the display is blank otherwise the number is displayed on the display. This is used to remove leading zeroes from a number. For example, displays 89 instead of 089. If more than one display has to be used, a connection of (Ripple Blanking Output) from most significant 7447 to the of the next 7447 has to be done. If a connection between of the least significant 7447 to 5V is done, the display will turn off when the number is 0. This circuit can also be controlled by a PLC (Programmable Logic Circuit), if the inputs to the BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) come from the 4 output bits of the PLC output card. Chapter 4:  Summary This chapter lists the achievements and developments of the project The following has been achieved in this project: Successful design and simulation of random number generation circuit along with the dice display Block Diagram of the Digital Dice game, circuit diagram for the display of random numbers from 1 6 on the 7 segment display. Successful assembly of wires, binary ripple counter (IC 7493), binary parallel adder (IC 7483), BCD 7 Segment display decoder (IC 7447). The development of this project is as follows. The digital dice game is currently being assembled, and post assembly, it will be used as a game to be played between two players.. Remaining circuit diagrams with more detail about the remaining parts of the block diagram will be designed.

Abortion Policy Essay -- Rights Birth Pregnancy Papers

Abortion Policy Abortion is one of about six major issues that the public considers when voting (Witwer). It is a complex issue that has been passionately debated for centuries. The various methods used to carry out the procedure range from disassembling the fetus and crushing the skull in order to suck it all out of the woman’s womb to the procedure called RU-486, that gives the woman a pill to prevent her body from giving the fetus the nutrients to stay alive. Also, some consider certain forms of birth control, Norplant, IUD, and emergency contraceptives to be abortions as well. Many people argue about when in the pregnancy abortions should be allowed, if there should be an age limit, if abortion should be allowed only in certain circumstances, if states should decide the legality of it, and if only certain procedures should be allowed. However, the key issue is: should abortion be totally legalized, totally banned, or remain the way it is? Numerous people have a stake in this issue. The issue of abortion affects every woman worldwide as well as men who find themselves involved in a situation related to abortion, and/or men who choose to concern themselves with such an ever-growing issue (Wlezien). Also, this issue affects the fetuses aborted, or permitted to live. There are generally two opposing sides to the issue where most people find themselves: the pro-life side and the pro-choice side. While it is true that men may find themselves involved in a situation related to abortion, the debate over it still remains predominantly female (Wlezien). Surveys, facts, and figures have indicated that the two sides are made up of vastly dissimilar people and their lifestyles (Wlezien). Pro-choice usually consists of young... ...89), pp. 229-230{primary scholarly, print via internet in original, authoritative} Wlezien, Christopher B.; Goggin, Malcolm. â€Å"The Courts, Interest Groups, and Public Opinion about Abortion†. Political Behavior, Vol. 15, No. 4. (Dec., 1993), pp. 381-405. {primary scholarly, print via internet in original, authoritative} â€Å"Unjust Punishment, Forced Contraception, and Poor Treatment of Women by the Courts and Prisons.† NARAL Pro Choice America Foundation. 27 April 1999. 22 March 2004. http://www.naral.org/facts/loader.cfm?url=/commonspot/security/getfile.cfm&PageID=1784. {unrestricted, internet publication, apparently credible} U. S. National Library of Medicine. Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA. 2002. www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/002398.htm - 29k - Mar 8, 2004. {primary scholarly, print via internet in original, authoritative}

The Eating Behaviour of Young People Essay -- Adolescence

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Adolescence is a stage in life that has many biological, cognitive and sociocultural changes. This stage in life is when individuals are most vulnerable and health behaviors play an important role in their future. An adolescent today is bombarded with many behaviors that can affect their future such as; smoking, drug use, and sex. These behaviors can carry immediate and severe consequences but there are other health behaviors such as eating choices and physical activity that can carry risks as well (Lytle, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lytle explains that there is data that suggests that adolescent’s current eating behaviors are putting them at risk for many different diseases later in life. Some of those diseases include: cardiovascular disease, cancer, osteoporosis, obesity and type 2 diabetes. Adolescents today have decreased physical activity and poor diet habits which makes nutritional issues for adolescents a very important topic that needs to be addressed (Lytle, 2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Cardiovascular disease begins in childhood. A study completed by Kelley, Krummel, Gonzales, Neal and Fitch examined 279 children. There hypothesis was that children who were at high risk for cardiovascular disease based on their family history would have diets that were different than the low risk children. The children’s height, weight, and total cholesterol were measured and each child filled out a food frequency questionnaire. 23% of the children were at risk for cardiovascular disease and their cholesterol was significantly higher. However intakes of energy, fat, cholesterol and fiber were similar in both the high risk and low risk groups. The researchers concluded that all children whether high risk or low risk need to change their dietary patterns in order to prevent cardiovascular disease. Those at high risk need specific guidelines in order to lower their risk for the disease. Healthcare professionals must promote the healthy benefits of healthy eat ing habits to both children and their families and finally it is critical that public health research address behavior modification in children (2004).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Diets high in saturated fat, total fat, sodium and low in fiber are associated not only with cardiovascular disease but also some types of cancer. Also diets low in fruits and vegetables are associated with increased risk of some types of cancer. National nutrition surveillance data ... ...zine and have their stories told to millions of readers. Keri Kulik, an exercise physiologist, who helped the Schall’s with monthly strategies to meet their goals, followed them for the next 6 months. Each month Keri gave the Schall family key strategies for success. Strategies started small like walking two nights a week together, watching less television and decreasing soda intake. By month 3 the family was including more sports like cycling, tennis and baseball in their routine also they have started circuit weight training together and have been drinking more water. By month six the Schall’s have consistently included exercise in their daily life and love it. They had one goal as a family and that was to increase physical activity, now the Schall’s are interested in working on their diet. They had made a consistent effort to eat a healthy breakfast every morning and include more healthy meals and snacks in their day. As Keri stated, â€Å"they now see th e big picture and are motivated to continue their healthy lifestyle.† Fit Family Fit Kids has shown how making small behavior changes in one families life can make big changes in both parent’s and children’s health (Fitness, 2005).

Financial Analysis of Agl Limited

GAL has a current ratio of less than 2 and less than PAP in 2012 meaning it does not have a satisfactory amount of current asset to cover its current liabilities. However, when it comes to 2012, both current ratio and quick ratio has a positive improvement showing GAL did not improve its short-term liquidity by stocking high level of inventory but really increased its level of cash and receivables. On the other hand, the operating cash flow ratio of GAL has reduced in 2012 meanings the decrease of ability to generate cash from operation.The increased amount of cash but decrease amount of ability to generate cash reveals that GAL increase its amount of cash by financing activities like issue of shares and borrowing. This activity makes Debt and coverage There are five ratios measuring the debt and coverage of a company. They are three debt ratios, Liabilities to Equity ratio, Debt to Equity Ratio and Capital Structure Leverage, Interest Coverage and Operating Cash Flow Ratio. All debt ratios of GAL have a sudden and great increase in 2012.It indicates that GAL increase its cash mainly by borrowing rather than issue share. This practice calling debt financing can get tax deduction which is more beneficial than equity financing. The company's interest coverage has dropped significantly discloses the decline of ability to pay interest due to the great amount of borrowing. However, when compared to PAP, the debt ratios of GAL still are not as great as that of PAP and GAL has higher interest coverage. This shows GAL is not in a very bad situation in borrowing.Efficiency The efficiency of GAL has decreased compared to last two year showing by the remover ratio such as Account Receivable, Inventory and Fixed Asset turnover. Nevertheless, the turnover rates of GAL are still greater than PAP and that of PAP are at the same time decrease. This may expose the fact that the efficiency of the industry is lower in 2012. Overall, GAL has a very poor performance in 2012. Althou gh this may be due to the low efficiency of the industry, the main reason is the low profitability of GAL together with the huge borrowing. The fact that GAL did not make the best use of the borrowing is brought to light.

Research Essay: Elements of Classic Conditioning Essay

In the Little Albert experiment of Conditioned Emotional Reactions, baby Albert was exposed to various stimuli which were paired with a loud banging noise on a bar. A rat was put next to Albert and when he would reach for the rat, they would bang that bar to get baby Albert to display fear by crying. Albert was conditioned to the point that by simply showing him the rat he would cry and want to crawl away. He knew that along with the rat, came the loud clanging noise, therefore he felt that by avoiding the rat, he would also be able to avoid the noise. â€Å"In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus (US) is one that unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response† (Cherry). In this study, the unconditioned stimulus (US) is the noise of the banging bar. The conditioned stimulus (CS) is the rat and the conditioned response (CR) is that of baby Albert crying and crawling away from the rat. The conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that was once neutral, but becomes linked with the unconditioned stimulus, and eventually elicits a certain response (Cherry). Little Albert was also exposed to various other stimuli, like masks, a rabbit, a dog, a fur coat, cotton and wool. In all of these incidences, Little Albert reacted negatively. He was so accustomed to the rat producing the loud bang of the bar, that he started to exhibit generalization when all of these other items were introduced. Generalization occurs when a similar stimulus is introduced yielding the same conditioned response. (Feist & Rosenberg, 2012 p. 310). There was markedly little difference in his reaction to these other stimuli in comparison to the reaction with the rat. In this research study the conditioning did not last over time due to extinction. Little Albert was exposed repeatedly to the identical stimuli and therefore the aversion to the rat and banging bar decreased. The rat no longer yielded the same results it once did. Although he still shied away from it, he no longer exhibited the fearful crying that was once present. The conditioned responses persisted, although with a loss in the severity of the response (Watson & Rayner, 1920). In my opinion, this experiment is highly unethical. First, I have to wonder what the effects of this experiment had on Little Albert later on in his life. The article stated that right up until the day he left the hospital, the experiment continued. There was no evidence of follow up or desensitization with this young infant. The other area of concern for me is that this experiment was conducted with a loud banging noise in propinquity to Little Albert’s ear. Exposure to loud noises especially noises in close proximity to the ear, can cause Noise Induced Hearing Loss (Bredenkamp & Gnaupp). There was no indication that this was even considered. These are only a few of the unethical conditions under which this experiment was conducted. This experiment cannot be conducted today because Little Albert’s well being was not protected, and in my opinion this experiment could have been quite detrimental to his overall health. ? References Bredenkamp, J. K. , & Gnaupp, F. B. (n. d. ). Noise induced hearing loss and its prevention. Retrieved October 18, 2013. from http://www. medicinenet. com/noise_induced_hearing_loss_and_its_prevention/page4. htm Cherry, K. (n. d. ). Conditioned Stimulus – About. com Psychology. Retrieved October 18, 2013, from http://psychology. about. com/od/cindex/g/condstim. htm Cherry, K. (n. d. ). What Is an Unconditioned Stimulus? Retrieved October 18, 2013, from http://psychology. about. com/od/uindex/g/unconditioned. htm Feist, G. J. , & Rosenberg, E. L. (2012). Learning. In Psychology: Perspectives & connections (p. 310). Retrieved from https://digitalbookshelf. southuniversity. edu/#/books/0077736494/pages/66379448 Watson, J. B. , & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Pscyhology, 2, pp. 1-14.