Independant Study, Delayed Cord Clamping vs Immediate Cord Clamping Essay

Throughout the students practical placements they have witnessed midwives having conflicting views on the practice of delayed cord clamping which then allowed the student to research the topic in depth. After reviewing all the evidence the student will make recommendations for practice. They should discuss the implications of both delayed cord clamping and immediate cord clamping to improve patient safety and reduce harm to both the neonate and the mother. For the student to show their ability to be an independent learner they must undertake a study on a subject of their choice. The student has chosen to discuss whether delayed cord clamping or immediate cord clamping is more beneficial for a positive outcome for neonates and mothers. The student will relate this subject to The World Health Organisations (WHO) documentation relating to patient safety and also how delaying cord clamping could reduce harm to the neonate and mother. Previous to this study the student will have presented their plan and learning outcomes to a small audience and has also provided a rationale, stating the aim, learning outcomes and also outlining their reasoning on choosing this particular topic for their Independent study (appendix 1). Literature Review The most historically practiced protocol has been delayed cord clamping, with work dating back to 1773, when Charles While published his famous work, A Treatise on the Management of Pregnant and Lying in Women, which taught delayed cord clamping as common practice except in the case of a nuchal cord (Cook, 2007). Erasmus Darwin in 1801 suggested that it was injurious to an infant if the umbilical cord was cut too soon. He advised it should always be left until the child has repeatedly breathed and the cord had stopped pulsating, otherwise the baby would be left much weaker than it should be as the blood which should have been transfer to the baby would have been left in the placenta (Bluff, 2006). Immediate cord clamping started becoming more common practice in the 1960s due to two reasons. Firstly, mismanaged jaundice provoked a great deal of lawsuits against paediatricians who then urged obstetricians to minimise placental transfusion. Secondly, due to the increase use of analgesia and active management of the third stage of labour Eastman (1950) stated that by the widespread use of analgesic drugs in labour, it has resulted in a number of infants who had sluggish respiratory effects at birth causing the need for immediate cord clamping to take place. In 1997 the World Health Organisation suggested the primary reason for early clamping being practiced is to protect the neonate from the large infusion of blood that occurs from the Syntocinon induced contraction immediately after delivery. More recent studies have shown the opposite from this and that delayed cord clamping is more beneficial to the mother and baby. The NICE Clinical Guidelines (2007) on intra-partum care carried out a review to ascertain whether interfering with placental transfusion had any benefits to the mother or the baby. Their findings was that there was insufficient evidence to support delayed cord clamping in high income countries but it did support that delayed cord clamping reduced anaemia in low to middle income countries. They suggest this is due to anaemia being more prevalent in those countries over all and that more research needs to be done to suggest delayed cord clamping is beneficial to mother and baby. The student has chosen three studies to consider and review. The first is a study by Anderson et al, (2011). Their aim was to determine the effects of delayed cord clamping versus early cord clamping on neonatal outcomes and iron status at four month. Their reasoning behind this was that previous studies have found that as much as 26% of children suffer from anaemia and in India 70% of children between six-eleven months were found to be anaemic (Jaleel, Deeba, Khan, 2009). It has been suggested that iron deficiency has been associated with impaired neurological development; therefore Anderson et al (2011) decided to carry out a randomised control trial to try and decided what would be the best practice. They state their main focus is haemoglobin and iron status at four months of age and they have a secondary focus of neonatal anaemia, early respiratory symptoms and polycythaemia. Their aim was clear from the outset that they would show delayed cord clamping reduces iron deficiency in neonates. The second study is an article by Bluff (2006) discussing early versus delayed cord clamping. Bluffs objective is to prove that by delaying cord clamping it can reduce the incidences of Respiratory Distress Syndrome, Intravatricular Haemorrhage, Necrotizing Enterocolostic and brain damage. Bluff (2006) provides sufficient evidence to back up their claim agreeing with Anderson et al (2011) that delayed cord clamping is more beneficial to the mother and baby than early cord clamping. The third study the student has chosen to discuss is one of midwives views on delayed cord clamping. Airey et al (2008) states that although there is evidence to associate delayed cord clamping with benefits to mother and baby midwives still practice early clamping. The author claims there is an uncertainty of alternative strategies with cord clamping. Falcao (2012) agrees suggesting this may be due to the lack of knowledge and clear guidelines of what delayed cord clamping is. Therefore Airey et al (2008) conducted a survey, their aim was to interview a number of delivery suite midwives and record the results, stating there is conflicting knowledge of the timing of delayed cord clamping. Anderson et al (2011) states that young children are at risk of iron deficiency due to low iron intake and the need for iron for rapid growth. Iron is essential for cognitive development (Mitra, 2009) therefore it is important that we understand the best practice possible to reduce these risk associated with iron deficiency and achieve optimal brain development. Bluff (2006) states that iron stores are crucial for optimal neurological development. Anderson et al (2011) obtained their results from 400 full term infants in low risk pregnancy which makes it one of the largest randomised controlled studies comparing delayed and early clamping. By using a larger group it gives more accurate and widespread results (NIH,2012). Their results showed, that at four months of age infants had no significant differences in haemoglobin concentration, but 45% of infants that had delayed cord clamping had higher ferritin levels and lower prevalence of iron deficiency. Mitra et al (2009) also carried out a similar study, although only using 130 participants the same results were found that delayed cord clamping reduces the risk of iron deficiency. Many studies have shown that by clamping the umbilical cord immediately after birth it reduces the blood the neonate receives therefore it may increase the risk of that infant becoming iron deficient or anaemic. The blood circulating the placenta and umbilical vessels is 25-40% of the babies total blood volume (Yao & Lind,1974). A healthy neonate’s blood volume is around 80-115ml/kg of birth weight therefore a neonate weighing 3. 6kg has a blood volume of 209- 290mls of blood, which 75-125mls may have been transfused. By delaying cord clamping and allowing the extra blood to be transfused this could provide the neonate with an additional 50 mg of additional iron which may prevent or delay low iron levels as an infant ( Bluff, 2006). Bluff (2006) also discusses the other benefits to delayed cord clamping, such as reducing the risks of Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS) which is the major cause of neonatal morbidity, mortality, Necrotising Enterocolitis (NEC) and Intraventricular Haemorrhages (IVH). This is due to immediate clamping of the cord preventing additional blood being transfused to the neonate which is the equivalent to the amount transferred to a baby with profound shock Morley (1998). This describes immediate cord clamping as the equivalent of subjecting an infant to a massive haemorrhage. Mercer and Skovgaard (2002) state that if we lost this much blood at any other point in our lives it would cause serves morbidity or death. . By clamping the cord immediate after delivery this would result in blood being sacrificed from other organs in order to establish pulmonary perfusion, which may increase the risk of the neonate suffering from RDS, NEC or IVH. The use of Delayed Cord Clamping should also be used with preterm neonates. Strauss et al (2008) also carried out a randomised controlled trial comparing delayed versus immediate cord clamping but specifically relating to preterm neonates. The outcomes are the same as the previous trials that delayed cord clamping is more beneficial to the neonate than immediate cord clamping. The author states that the neonates whole blood volume was increased after delayed cord clamping. Bluff (2006) also agrees that delayed cord clamping should be used with preterm infants if possible as it increases red blood cells and stabilises blood pressure therefore decreasing the need for transfusions and also decreases the risk of bleeding in the brain. Although there is a great deal of evidence showing benefits to the neonate from delayed cord clamping, there is also benefits to the mother. Bluff (2006) suggests that by delaying the clamping of the cord it reduces the risk of the mothers experiencing a post-partum haemorrhage or a retained placenta. By immediately clamping the cord it increases the placentas blood supply by as much as 100mls therefore increasing the bulk of the placenta and decreasing the efficiency of uterine contractions which are necessary for the expulsion (Bluff, 2006). In 1968 Walsh found that Delayed Cord clamping reduces post-partum haemorrhages and retained placentas. She states that with the placenta being less bulky when it has been drained blood by the neonate, the uterus can contract easier and ore effectively on a less engorged placenta therefore reducing maternal blood loss. This is helping to improve patient safety to the mothers by preventing PPHs and retained placentas. It was thought that early cord clamping should be performed if the mother is anaemic, so in 2004 a study conducted by the Liverpool school of tropical medicine assessed mothers with a mean haemoglobin level of 10g/dl. The results showed it was still beneficial to the neonatal to delay the cord clamping and caused no adverse effects to the mother. The adverse effects of delayed cord clamping which are outlined in the studies are that it may cause polycythaemia and hyperbilirubinemia. There have been studies to show that polycythaemia and jaundice is an increased risk of delayed cord clamping. Polycythaemia means that more red cells are transfused delivering more oxygen to the tissues which Bluff (2006) suggests could be beneficial. Some, use the reasoning that there is a risk that by having more red blood cells may cause the blood to become too thick as an argument against delayed cord clamping, which seems to be negligible in healthy babies. Morley 1998). A study carried out by Hutton and Hussian (2007) showed that the infants who had delayed cord clamping had a slight increase in polycythaemia but where not symptomatic and did not need any treatment. Morley(1998) suggest that if a baby receives their full quota of blood, then the baby is almost certain to suffer from slight jaundice as its caused by the normal breakdown of the normal excess blood to produce bilirubin, but there is no evidence of adverse effects from this. Mercer et al (2003) also carried out randomised and nonrandomised studies on delayed cord clamping. From the five hundred and thirty one term infants and nine trials she conducted, there were no significant symptoms of either polycythaemia or hyperbilirubinemia noted. Hutton and Hussians study also showed a slight increase in bilirubin levels within the first 24 hours of live but no infants had to be treated. There were insignificant differences in bilirubin levels from three to fourteen days. The trial Anderson et al (2011) carried out also found no differences in these outcomes. The Cochrane review (2008) was one which reported significant differences in bilirubin levels between immediate cord clamping and delayed cord clamping and suggested a number of infants needed phototherapy for jaundice, although it was conducted using unpublished data. Therefore given no reason to ensure the cord is clamped immediately to prevent any harm to the infant. One of the problems the student observed while working in a clinical area was the midwives different views and practices on cord clamping. Airey et al (2008) carried out a study to gather the general senses of midwives views on the subject. They interviewed 63 delivery suit midwives of which 42 described delayed cord clamping as when the pulsation stops, but 48 of the midwives admitted to clamping the cord within one minute of the baby being delivered. The author states that within the UK 87% of units give Sytocinon and clamps the cord early applying controlled cord traction. Falcao (2012) agrees in which a higher percentage of midwives will practice early cord clamping rather than delayed. She suggests this may be due to the lack of knowledge and clear guidelines of what delayed cord clamping is. Falcao (2012) states all midwives should have a clear understanding of the timing and benefits of delayed cord clamping to have the safest up to date practice. Discussion Patient safety is a worldwide public health problem, but the issues around patient safety differ. In 2002, The World Health Organisation recognises patient safety as ‘the need to reduce harm and suffering of patients and their families’. They state that any producers carried out should be evidence based to help prevent harm. Anderson et al (2011) randomised controlled trial refers to reducing harm to the neonate. They suggest that by delaying the cord clamping it is improving iron stores. As previously discussed by increasing iron stores it is likely to reduce the risk of impaired cognitive function, Respiratory Distress Syndrome, Intraventricular Haemorrhage and Necrotising Enterocolitis (Bluff, 2006). This is giving us evidence that delayed cord clamping is beneficial to the neonate. The Royal College of Midwives have produced a document ‘Evidence Based Guidelines for midwifery-led care in labour; third stage of labour’ which outlines the ‘pros and cons’ for delaying cord clamping, stating communication is important. They suggest by informing the women of her choices and explaining to her the benefits she should be able to make a decision which midwifes will support. According to the joint commission on Accreditations of HealthCare Organization, communication was the worst category in 2005. They state the reason for ineffective communication is varied from stressful environments causing staff to forget information, to the culture of autonomy and hierarchy of staff. Poor communications between health care professionals, patients and their carers has shown to be the most common reason for lawsuits against health care providers (WHO,2011). It is important that information about delayed cord clamping is shared with the women herself so she is able to make an informed choice about the care of her and her baby. Another problem highlighted in communication is the ability to handover correct information to staff taken over their care. The SBAR communication tool has been implement for staff to be able to communicate effectively with one another (NHS, 2006). Communication is essential to good team work, and team work is essential to patient safety (NHS, 2007). Staff should use the tool in the clinical area where it enables the communication to be clear and allows the midwife looking after the women to write down their care plan for the staff to take over without the worry of missing essential information. Communication is also very important in delayed cord clamping as Airey et al (2008) highlighted the midwives have different views on cord clamping and the timing that defines delayed clamping. Their results showed a variance in understanding of delayed clamping times whether it should be after one minute, five minutes or after pulsation has stopped. Each unit should be able to communicate with their staff to make sure that all midwives have the same understanding of cord clamping to promote the best possible practice to reduce harm. NHS Scotland (2007) state that clinical descions about treatments should be made on the basis of the best possible evidence to ensure care is safe and effective. Midwives should have the ability to be able to assess information which would help them make decisions about the best possible care for that women. They should be able to understand where delayed cord clamping is not appropriate by identifying a problem such as an obstetric emergencies, and use appropriate interventions to care for that women and her baby to reduce the risk of any harm (WHO 2011). WHO (2007) state that evidence does not always need to be the most up to date to be the most accurate. Bluff (2006) discusses article written as far back as 1773 which are relevant to practice today and still adhere to patient safety guidelines discussing how delayed cord clamping reduces harm to the neonate by increasing blood supply. As Bluff (2006) discusses, there is some evidence that shows immediate cord clamping contributes to post-partum haemorrhage (PPH). The rate of PPH continues to rise although most other causes of severe maternal morbidity declines. International data suggest that post-partum haemorrhage is increasing worldwide with 385 women in Scotland experienced PPH in 2011, one in every 170 births. PPH accounted for 73% of all the reported incidents of severe maternal morbidity. (Healthcare Improvement Scotland, 2013). As Bluff (2006) states by simply practicing delayed cord clamping causing the placenta to be drained of blood by the neonate it will help reduce the number of women experiencing Post-partum haemorrhages improving Patient safety. By gathering all the information and research studies carried out it is clear that by delaying cord clamping at deliveries it can reduce harm to neonates and prevent unnecessary illnesses and diseases. WHO state that’s when solutions have been shown to work effectively in controlled research settings, it is important that we can assess and evaluate the impact, accessibility and affordability of these solutions and implement then accordingly. It has been proven that by practicing delayed cord clamping cost is reduced as it is less likely for the neonate to need a blood transfusion. (Kinmond, 1993) . It is very accessible as we would not be changing practice just delaying it therefore we should implement delayed cord clamping to reduce harm and improve on patient safety for both mothers and neonates.

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In bold statements of aggression, in 2012 alone, Iran has announced two new missiles, an air defense site, and a fleet of ultra-fast gun boats designed to zip into battle against larger wester n fleets. In a twist of fate, MEKs future may lie in the hands of the United States. The United States has until October 1, 2012 to decide if it will delist MEK from the FTO. If MEK is delisted it will enjoy much more freedom of movement around the world and it will be able to legally receive funds from U.S. based sympathizers. It is not unreasonable to think that the U.S. will delist MEK in an effort to undermine the Iranian Government, much like Saddam Hussein offered MEK a home in 1986 to undermine Iran during the Iran Iraq war. Leadership, Funding and Capabilities Most of MEKs original leadership was arrested and executed in 1971, but Massoud Rajavi escaped death and remains a leader of MEK. Though he has not been seen publicly since 2003, his wife, Maryam Rajavi, is the public face of the MEK in her role as president-elect of the National Council of Resistance of Iran (Jones 2012). In the past four decades the group has used several methods to raise funds for its campaign. Some methods have made the group infamous and add to the list of reasons that the U.S. and several other nations have classified it as a Foreign Terrorist Organization. MEK has long been skilled in deception and has used that skill to affect its fund raising efforts. For example, its solicitation of funds for Iranian refugees, child welfare, and childrens medical services proven to be fraudulent (FBI n.d.). Until 2003, MEK had a substantial armory due to its previous relationship  with Saddam Hussein. Its inventory often included artillery, tanks, aircraft, rocket launchers, rifles, mortars, shells, rockets, land mines, and bullets (FBI n.d.). In 2003, the United States bombed MEK camps and bunkers based on their relationship to Saddam Hussein and the idea that they posed a significant threat with their armaments. MEK members no longer have easy access to such large stockpiles of arms. MEK is now facing deportation from its Iraqi camp Ashraf and remains disarmed. Operating Bases, Support Bases, Strengths MEK has moved its headquarters over the years as a necessary part of survival. Originally founded in Tehran, it moved to Paris after the 1979 Iranian Revolution. The group had allied with the Ayatollah Khomeini, but Khomeini forced the group out in fear of opposition. In 1986 Saddam Hussein invited the group to relocate to camp Ashraf. Iraq was at war with Iran, and relocating the group from Paris to Iraq was Husseins method of undermining Iran. At the start of the U.S. led war in Iraq under Operation Iraqi Freedom, the group was classified as enemy combatants and subsequently confined to Camp Ashraf, where approximately 3,000 MEK now live (Carter 2011). The new government of Iraq has declared that all members of MEK must leave the country, and the U.N. is currently working to resettle the group elsewhere. For the moment MEK enjoys limited support from sympathizers around the world, but it is stateless which is both a strength and a weakness. The U.N., citing international law, will not allow the Iraqi government to force members to leave Iraq or force repatriation until members have a suitable place to live. This predicament brings MEK some publicity and sympathy for their cause, but Iraqs determination to expel MEK could not have occurred at a worse time. With June 2013 elections nearing, increasing tension with western military powers, and an imminent Israeli preemptive strike against Iranian nuclear targets, MEK leadership must act swiftly to ensure its place in the 2013 elections. PART II RED TEAM ANALYSIS Why Use Red Team Analysis? Given the complex dynamics of the Iranian situation, analysts should use  the Red Team Analysis technique in order to best predict what course(s) of action MEK leadership will take to assume control of the government. By empathizing with the MEK leadership analysts can gain better insight to most likely courses of action. The end state of this analytic technique is to provide Congress and the President with an accurate forecast of MEKs courses of action so that the United States may apply the appropriate short and long term foreign policy in the Middle East. Since MEK desires a peaceful, tolerant Iran that can only be legitimized via free elections and public suffrage, it cannot take control of the nation by force. Therefore, MEKs options are limited and it must patiently await the 2013 elections regardless of the growing concern of military action and economic sanctions. As President Ahmadinejad continues to escalate military tension with western nations and Israel, through missile, nuclear, and naval programs (Torbati 2012). MEK leadership must carefully calculate how to win popular Iranian support, world support, and financial backing all without ever appearing to be influenced by western powers as previous Iranian leaders had. Restate Current MEK Goals Red Team Analysis must begin with placing oneself in the shoes of MEK leadership. The key to determining any viable course of action is to outline clear goals or milestones. With clear goals, analysts can categorize what actions and strategies are available and likely. According to MEKs official website, its current goals, rather, solution to the western-Iranian strife is to rid the region and the world of the nightmare of the Islamic fundamentalists armed with nuclear weapons [by] democratic change in Iran by the people and the Resistance (Rajavi 2010). This stated goal remains largely unchanged from its 1970s goal. The main difference now is that MEK is more tolerant of western aid, albeit, so long as they do not become overly influenced by it. Key Assumptions Check Paramount to the analytic process is a key assumptions check. This step allows analysts to clearly document the start point of their cognitive map as well as allowing time to consider information that challenges cognitive  biases. The key assumptions must be listed in such a way that analysts feel like MEK leaders would if trying to decide how to realize their stated goal of taking control of the Iranian government. Below is a list of key assumptions in this Red Team Analysis. Previous Failures. All previous attempts to control government have failed beginning with the overthrow of the Shah in 1979. This assumption is critical because the MEK believed the Ayatollah Khomeini was their ally. They were betrayed. They banded together only to be exiled within two years and many members were arrested and executed while Khomeini consolidated power. The experience likely taught MEK to distrust any potential allies within the current regime. History of Violence. During the 1960s the Shah used force and violence against government opposition. Uprisings in the 1970s culminated in the exile of the Shah, but into the 1980s MEK fought the new Iranian government. During the Iraq-Iran war that began in the early 1980s, MEK settled just north of Baghdad and fought a cross border war with the clerical regime for twenty more years. Only at the turn of the century did MEK publicly denounce violence and terrorist tactics. The significance is that, while MEK members are accepting of risk and violence, they have matured and realize that they do not operate in a vacuum. MEK understands the need for global acceptance. HUMINT Value. MEK can offer HUMINT to the U.S. No other organization with detailed knowledge of Iran and its military and political system is willing to provide such information to western powers. The U.S. has had extremely limited success installing or recruiting agents in Iran because of extreme scrutiny that outsiders face, and CIA informants are usually discovered due to poor tradecraft (Hosenball 2011). MEK however, has family, friends, sympathizers and safe houses inside Iran. As well, since the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003 MEK has received training, equipment and funds to carry out attacks inside Iran and to collaborate with U.S. and Israeli intelligence services (Joshi 2012). MEKs HUMINT value is possibly the most important aspect for western powers. MEK leadership understands the power they hold and must leverage it wisely. Knowledge of U.S. Tactics Techniques and Procedures. MEK leaders are aware of U.S. TTPs at the small unit tactics level up through executive branch policymaking. They will play on the American and Israeli fears of a nuclear armed Iran while leveraging their HUMINT and political value to affect their delisting from the FTO. Once  delisted they wi ll be able to receive more funding from international sources, thus requiring less U.S. support and will become less responsive to U.S. demands. Western Support: Critical For Financing, Opposite of Ideology Being listed on the U.S. Foreign Terrorist Organization list impedes MEKs financing efforts. In order to gain power they must be delisted decade long endeavor thus far. Its members have cooperated with Israeli and U.S. intelligence services since 2003 in an effort to gain support and take over the political regime in Iran, but its original ideology was very much opposed to any western influence. MEK must exercise extreme caution to ensure that the group does not appear to be another puppet regime of the U.S and especially not in collaboration with Israel. If threatened with defeat, the current regime will likely try to depict MEK as a puppet regime, and if the U.S. loses influence it may also try to publicize MEKs cooperation in an effort to decrease its credibility among Iranians. Enormity of the Situation. MEK is currently stateless. Though the U.N. has petitioned several governments to accept MEK members, most have declined to accept them. With nowhere to go MEK is desperate to g ain power in Iran because it belongs to no other state. If they fail the Iranian regime will likely execute them, despite President Ahmadinejads amnesty offer. Data Collection Options Of the many collection options the United States has at its disposal, a handful stand out as being the most practical. HUMINT may be the best collection option because it offers an inside look at MEK and the status of the Iranian nuclear and defense programs as well as the mentality and plans of regime leaders. For example, an undercover agent, code named Wally, joined the Revolutionary Guard in the 1980s and gave the CIA plans, ideology, weaponry etc, and he was able to recruit several more members of the Revolutionary Guard to turn informer for the CIA (Zucchino 2012). OSINT is another extremely useful collection option, which can provide detailed atmospherics and help depict the support, or lack thereof, of the general public to the current and possible successor regimes. OSINT can also offer information on Irans defensive and offensive capabilities as depicted  in the recent revelation that Iran has cloned a fleet of ultra-fast gun boats. Originally produced in England, the Bradstone Challenger (Bladerunner) is a speedboat with a revolutionary hull design that affords it great stability at high speeds. Iran illicitly purchased a Bladerunner in 2009, reverse engineered the design, and manufactured its own fleet which the Navy modified to launch torpedoes and missiles at full speed. The Bladerunner fleet, combined with an array of heavily armed small craft, including unmanned high-speed Ya Mahdi vessels, Bavar 2 flying boats, Seraj-1 high-speed patrol boats and Zolfaghar fast attack craft (Stock 2012) poses a significant threat to the Strait of H ormuz and western naval forces with much larger and slower vessels. SIGINT and MASINT will likely have to wait until military confrontation begins in order to be relevant. MEKs equipment inventory is very limited, so SIGINT and MASINT should not be a top priority. GEOINT is relevant in that it depicts the correlation of key terrain to strategic targets and political issues. For example, GEOINT can depict which routes MEK would likely take in order to transit to Tehran or flee Iraq in other ways. It also helps answer contingency operation questions such as, what if MEK takes control of the military and attempts to hold the Strait of Hormuz ransom? In a more tactical situation GEOINT can provide detailed dimensions of hideouts and buildings for the U.S. to plan an attack should the need arise. Use of the Intelligence Community The CIA is the best is the best agency to use to handle collection on MEK. The agency has more than half a century of experience in working with sources and is best trained in managing counterintelligence and misinformation techniques. Already, the CIA has worked with MEK members since 2002 when MEK publicized Irans underground Uranium enrichment program. Training MEK members in tradecraft techniques and supporting their cross-border subversion tactics allows the CIA to wage a proxy war with Iran while strengthening its relationship and gaining more human intelligence on both MEK and Iran. No other agency within the United States has the resources to foster this type of relationship with MEK. Most Effective Intelligence Analysis Strategies The effective intelligence strategy to use for evaluating MEK and forecasting its actions is to begin with Analysis of Competing Hypotheses and follow those results with the Devils Advocacy method. Analysis of Competing Hypotheses. ACH is ideal for evaluating MEK because there are diverse dynamics involved in forecasting MEK actions. Considering that the U.S. must decide to keep or delist MEK from the FTO on October 1, 2012, ACH would provide decision makers with a documented line of reasoning to support an Intelligence Forecast. Devils Advocacy. The prevailing consensus in Washington is that MEK has morphed from a militant group to a political group in the past decade and will be a more western friendly regime if it comes to power. But what if MEK is playing the west to gain power now, while secretly planning to spread its 1979 revolutionary ideology across the Middle East and North Africa in an attempt to reestablish Persian dominance? It seems that the west is focused first on cou ntering a nuclear threat and second on countering any blocking of the Hormuz Strait. No additional talking points regarding Iran or MEK have received much publicity since 1979. Conclusion MEK is a wild card in the Iran standoff. The United States and other western powers, as well as Israel, must carefully consider how to proceed with MEK relationships. The organization has shown a history of changing allies in order to advance its goals, making it predictable in the sense that they can be counted on to do whatever it takes to survive and take control of the Iranian government. To brush MEK aside may mean dealing with a nuclear armed Iran later, and to support MEK may mean dealing with a provoked Iran now. No matter the decision, each carries its own implications for U.S. foreign policy. Washington must ultimately decide between the lesser of two evils. Bibliography Carter, Chelsea. U.N., Iraq agree to temporary relocation of Iranian exiles. CNN, December 26, 2011. http://articles.cnn.com/2011-12-26/middleeast/world_meast_iraq-camp-ashraf-re location_1_camp-ashraf-ashraf-residents-mek/2?_s=PM:MIDDLEEAST (accessed July 28, 2012). FBI. Seven Plead Guilty to Providing Material Support to Designated Foreign Terrorist Organization. FBI. http://www.fbi.gov/losangeles/press-releases/2009/la042809a.htm (accessed July 29, 2012). Goulka, Jeremiah, et al. The Mujahedin-e Khalq in Iraq: A Policy Conundrum. RAND Corporation: Santa Monica, 2009. Hosenball, Mark. Hezbollah, Iran uncover CIA informants. Reuters. http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/11/21/us-cia-hezbollah-idUSTRE7AK2MQ20111121 (accessed August 23, 2012). Jones, Owen Bennet. An Iranian mystery: Just who are the MEK?BBC News. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-17615065 (accessed July 30, 2012). Joshi, Shashank. Iran and the Mujahedin e Khalq (MEK). Harvard University Department of Government. http://shashankjoshi.wordpress.com/2012/05/30/iran-and-the-mujahedin-e-khalq-mek/ (accessed August 24, 2012). Masters, Jonathan. Mujahadeen-e-Khalq (MEK) (aka Peoples Mujahedin of Iran or PMOI). Council on Foreign Relations, July 18, 2012. http://www.cfr.org/iran/mujahadeen-e-khalq-mek-aka-peoples-mujahedin-iran-pmoi/p9158 (accessed July 24, 2012). MEK. Camp Ashraf: About Us. MEK. http://www.campashraf.org/about/camp-ashraf/ (accessed July 30, 2012). Rajavi, Maryam. Comprehensive sanctions is the essential first step, regime change is the final solution. Peoples Mojahedin Organization of Iran. http://www.mojahedin.org/pagesen/detailsNews.aspx?newsid=9551 (accessed August 22, 2012).

Japanese Policing Is Illustrated Criminology Essay

Japanese Policing Is Illustrated Criminology Essay Following the establishment of the London metropolitan police by Sir Robert Peel in 1829, the arrangement of police forces throughout the country was a cumulative process, with each anew local police force operating according to the needs of individual communities they served. Hence, policing was part of the self-directed process insofar as was it was proposed to reflect the needs of the public. In that history, the roots of English policing lay in a particular functionary. The principles of community oriented policing in Britain in addition to several important aspects of its practice e.g. neighbourhood patrols can be traced to the creation of professional policing in the nineteenth century and the ways in which the police mandate was established. Early authors of British policing such as Peel established the notion that effective policing can only be attained with the consent of the community. Established in 1829, The Peelian Principles currently are applicable and used in law enforcement agencies and community policing organizations across the world today. The principles preserve the notion of policing by consent which has been at the core of British policing since. The second and third principles state that the police would not be able to operate without the active co-operation of the community (ACPO 2012). Community policing involves and is seemingly justified as necessary by the Peelian Principles stated above. This remains the case, but the diffi culties facing communities alongside the police have altered over time. In the Peelian model, found in Britain, the police are less pervasive of community than their authoritarian counterparts and, while it is accepted that they do perform an array of servicing tasks, police organizations are more generally equipped towards emergency response and law enforcement than routine intervention in neighbourhood life. In Eastern organisations such as Japan, argues Bayley (1982, police are used as an important element in social control, but in contrast with the other two models, tends to maintain order through harnessing the forces of informal social control. Rather than the use of robust and legal authority, they cultivate community involvement in crime control through extensive, service-style interactions with the community by example and persuasion allowing them to become an integrated part of the Japanese community in which they can regularly advise, engage and mediate functions (Bayley 1976). This conforms systematically to the ideal of the koban In western models of community policing the main function of the police is to maintain order, and where the citizen commonly fails to recognise the legitimacy of the state and its agents, the police. In such societies, the police may carry out a range of administrative tasks on behalf of the state, but rarely provide a public service that addresses the needs of the community. In comparison, a community-oriented system like Japan is one where the main function of the police is to provide a public service that addresses the wider needs of the community as distinguished by the Koban and Chuzaisho. The emphasis here is more on crime as indicative of community problems as an affront to authority. Such a model adopts that the police are afforded considerable legitimacy by local communities. Community policing elements in UK are, for example, incorporated in the Crime and Disorder Act 1998. It facilitates for the administration of crime surveys to organise local priorities in respect to crime and disorder. The English tradition of high levels of discretion and decentralisation of the police service also fit a community-oriented policing style. Community policing is also in operation, albeit sometimes seemingly in disguise, in Sweden, Norway and the Netherlands. When introduced in western societies it often means that a shift is made towards either more local efforts on crime prevention, a reprioritisation of non-emergency services, increased public accountability or a decentralisation of decision-making on policing (Skolnick and Bayley 1988). Police officers seem to have a great deal of respect in Japan, and koban officers are generally proud of their neighbourhood and the work they do. Needless to say, in many countries around the globe this is not quite the case. Lack of trust between police and citizens will make effective community policing almost impossible. For example following Scarman report (Scarman 1981) on Brixton riots, it focused attention on the needs for the police to develop closer engagements with members of the communities that they served. This led to the sense police were disconnected from the community and as a consequence they lacked the legitimacy required to police by consent. Undeniably Bennett describes community policing as its most basic, a greater working partnership between the police and the public (Bennett 1994: 224). Community police calls for much more decentralisation in the UKs policing system like US which has over 20,000 policing agencies throughout the country (Casey 2010) which is s imilar to the Japanese policing structure where police officers are seen as state servants. After the World War two, the US authorities initiated wide changes in Japan in rebuilding its police systems as a decentralized democratic body to impose a local system of policing from its invasive neighbourhood function. Neighbourhood policing has become the latest model of community policing in the UK, whilst community policing has been a prevalent model in the USA it hasnt been as noteworthy in the UK. Nevertheless during the early 2000s there was growing anxiety to the rise in the publics perception of crime. This eventually led to the development of the National Reassurance Policing Programme (NRPP) which developed a set of practical policing strategies that was orientated, largely, at reducing fear of crime midst the community. The Neighbourhood Policing model developed entirely out of the NRRP, and is undertaking with the extension of the policing family in order to provide each neighbourhood a local policing team that is both visible and accessible (Home Office 2008) much like the koban concept of community orientated policing in Japan where there are situated locally to help police the community. John Alderson (1979), a former chief constable argued that society was changing and that policing styles had to reflect this. Society was becoming free, permissive and participatory and authoritarian policing styles were no longer applicable (Alderson 1979: 376). His vision for the future of policing consisted of important aims that are still relevant in contemporary community policing styles for instance neighbourhood policing. In addition his suggestions placed emphasis on a more pro-active style of policing that works with the public in their communities again much like the koban concept of community oriented policing where they take a much more proactive role in taking a real interest to the local community needs of crime and disorder that is based upon active co-operation by preference to policing by consent. As for crime and community relations, at a time when policing in the UK and USA had drifted into more reactive and detached modes, the Japanese koban appeared to offer a model of community policing at its best and most effective. The Japanese Police Bureau was established in 1874 under the Ministry of Home Affairs. Japanese police were supposedly oppressive and even instituted a thought control operation to blot out any thinking contrary to overt support of the regime in power (Kanfman 1975: 17). After the Second World War, the US assisted Japan in rebuilding its police systems as a decentralized democratic body in an attempt to reduce the power of the police to impose a local system of policing. However these reforms were short lived and by 1954, Japan enacted a Police Law to restructure the police appropriate to cultural its needs (Hoffman 1982; Kanfman 1975) . By far the most well-known of the alternative models to the west is the koban structure of community policing in Japan. However, it contains a similar tradition of historical roots, of police integration with homogeneous communities of citizens, and of effectiveness. The Japanese koban offers a legitimate alternative to present day community policing in Western accounts. To serve local communities, the Japanese have local level substations, known as koban and chuzaisho, a residential police box in the rural areas. In the West the Police officers that would closely resemble the Japanese Chuzaisho officers are the sheriffs in the United States. The unit is typically a two-storey building, recognisable by the traditional red lamp. Koban officers normally do not drive around in patrol cars but are often on foot. This encourages frequent interactions with the community, where issues of crime are not the forefront, similarly with PCSOs in the UK who are highly visible in the communities pr edominantly on foot or cycle patrol. Yano (1989: 127) describes them as All day, policemen at the koban (police boxes) keep watch on the neighbourhood, answers questions, and help those who are in need of assistance. This provides a local presence that is missing in many western societies, although somewhat parallel to UKs concept of neighbourhood teams in the UK. The core purpose of PCSOs is to support Neighbourhood Policing teams in their neighbourhood thus spending the majority of their time within neighbourhoods (NPIA 2008) therefore dealing with community priorities and concerns, through community engagement and effective problem solving but not wholly reminiscent of the koban community orientated policing concept. Kobans form the first line of police response to the public and as such the scope of general assistance is wide. Koban officers may lend out umbrellas, may act as a lost and found office and often run various community activities e.g. distribution of local letters (Leishman 1999) to accepting a range of welfare and social service responsibilities. These officers attempt to become a part of the community, and their families often contribute in performing these jobs whilst in Britain, PCSOs, are uniformed support staffs that help officers tackle issues such as vandalism and antisocial behaviour. The police officers also administer surveys. Police officers conduct twice-yearly house-by-house district surveys on residents for various information e.g. names, occupations, ages, vehicle registration numbers etc. which has almost become a custom in the Japanese culture as its voluntary and rarely opposed. This type of community policing practiced in Japan would create a breach of civil liber ties in the Western community policing models The Koban and Chuzaisho system remains the foundation of Japans centralized police system. In contrast to community policing in western world three common characteristics exist between police box operations relative to the practices of Japanese corporations. In essence, Japanese community policing is meditative of Japanese culture whereas the Peelian model of crime-fighting, much adapted according to local national and cultural circumstances. The result historically was a patchwork of different police organizations concerned to enforce social order in communities from a local source. The theme of Japanese culture is groupism which interconnects the two key concepts of ie and mura. These two ideas cast Japan as one big family, in which each member is required to sacrifice their interest for the purpose of group welfare. Consistent with the concept of groupism, urban police boxes play a central role in carrying out police affairs as a team, relative to the Japanese community. Crime con trol is perceived to be a collective responsibility, a community matter, and not a function solely allocated to the local or state authorities like in the UK. Secondly, samurai heritage forms seniority, the basis of promotion. In the work place, i.e. police officers are promoted on the basis of seniority rather than ability in contrast to that of the UK. Thirdly, the career of a Japanese police officer is a lifetime commitment for both the officer and his family. Like all other professions in Japan, the job directs all other aspects of public and private life whereas in the UK police officers are required to retire after thirty years of service (Alarid Wang 1997). From the above it illustrates Japans is culturally very homogeneous as well as inclusive unlike the west. Apart from ethnic homogeneity, there is a supposed unity in social norms. Japanese culture places significant emphasis on the importance of harmony. Evidently, this is conducive to a community oriented policing style in Japan (Castberg 1990).

assisted suicide :: essays research papers

Assisted Suicide In 1997, Oregon became the only state allowing legal physician-assisted suicide (PAS). Although physician-assisted suicide has been legal in Oregon for four years, it remains highly controversial. PAS is when a doctor prescribes their patient to medication which would kill them. Patients must pass certain requirements in order to request a prescription for lethal medication. The patient must be 18 years or older, a resident of Oregon, able to make health care decisions, and diagnosed with a terminal illness that would lead to death within six months. After meeting these requirements patients are able to request a prescription for lethal medication from a licensed Oregon physician. To receive a prescription for lethal medication, the following steps must be completed: †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The patient must make two oral requests to their physician, separated by at least 15 days. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The patient must provide a written request to their physician, signed with two witnesses present. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The doctor who prescribes the patient and another physician must confirm the diagnosis and prognosis. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If either physician believes the patient's judgment is impaired by a psychiatric or psychological disorder, the patient must take a psychological examination. †¢Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The physician must inform the patient of alternatives to assisted suicide. Such as comfort care, hospital care, and pain management. During 1998, 1999 and 2000, approximately 16, 27, and 27 patients used PAS. Patients who died by PAS were more educated than other Oregonians who did not choose to commit suicide and had similar illnesses. All the medications prescribed are barbiturates. A physician or anyone else can not directly administer medication to end another's life. In 2001, 44 doctors prescribed 33 patients to a medication that would end their life. In comparison, 39 prescriptions were written in 2000, 33 in 1999 and 24 in 1998. Although the number of prescriptions written for physician-assisted suicide has increased in the past four years, the number of ill patients taking lethal medication has stayed small with less than 1/10 of one percent of Oregonians dying by physician-assisted suicide.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The reason I picked this topic is because I thought it was very interesting and also very controversial. I find it very interesting that Oregon is the only state that has physician-assisted suicide. I feel very strongly that if a person was in so much pain where they wanted to commit suicide, then it should be allowed. I also agree with the requirements a patient has to meet before being granted the prescription.

Alternative Energy Sources and New Technologies :: War Politics Essays

Alternative Energy Sources and New Technologies Oil may not be the main reason for our military action against Iraq, but the Middle East has the majority of the world’s oil. If the politics of that area were reorganized and we had not taken military action, Saddam Husein could have cut off his supply of oil to our country, shooting our prices to outrageous heights. If we could lessen our dependency on such countries for oil, our country would be much better off. When a crisis hits the U.S. or when conflict arises, we are always in a bind because of our dependency on other countries for oil. It raises our prices, and with a slowing sinking economy, the citizens cannot handle high prices. Cars and factories put off many different poisonous gasses into our air. These can make people very sick, cause plants and animals to die, and causes our atmosphere to become hazardous while depleting the O-zone layer. Another problem is oil spillage. About 1,000 barrels of oil seep per day into our ocean waters. About 11,000 barrels of U.S. oil got spilled from tankers from 1980 to 1998. But this doesn't include the barrels that were spilled outside of U.S. waters, which was about another 72,000 barrels. These numbers are simply too, high. They are improving, but still need to be decrease more. Alternative resources can solve so many of our countries problems. Alternative resources would cause our politicians to be less worried about an oil crisis because of our relations with other countries, but also it would simply decrease our fuel consumption to be saved for later uses, and drastically help clean our environment such as our air, land, and water. As I mentioned before, we have serious political conflict between countries that are major oil exporters and ourselves. These countries have the power to raise and lower our prices by simply be disturbing the relationship between their nation and ours. In addition, because these countries are not always ready to give us the oil we need, we must conserve our oil. In our reserves alone, we have only 599.3 million bbl. (bbl) of oil stored beneath Texas and in the Louisiana Gulf Coast. This is only enough to cover the supply coming from Iraq for 6 months. We need to save it incase of an extreme emergency.

The Roles of NREM and REM Sleep On Memory Consolidation Essay -- Resea

The Roles of NREM and REM Sleep On Memory Consolidation All mammals exhibit Rapid-Eye-Movement, or REM, sleep, and yet on certain levels this type of sleep would seem to be disadvantageous. During REM sleep, which is when most dreams occur, the brain uses much more energy than during non-REM (NREM) sleep. (1) This "waste" of energy coupled with the increased vulnerability of this state on account of the body's paralysis at this time suggests that there must be a very important reason, or reasons, for the existence of REM sleep and in extension of dreams. Determining the function of dreams, however, has proved very problematic with many arguments which directly oppose each other. Some of the primary functions of dreaming have been tied to is role in development, its production of neuro-proteins, and also to how it may allow for the "rehearsal" of neurons and neuronal pathways. The influence of dreaming on learning is one of the hottest debates. Some argue that dreams aid in learning, others that dreams aid in forgetting, and yet other s that dreams have no effect on learning or memory. That REM sleep seems to aid in development might argue that REM sleep may be connected to learning. It seems that most scientists believe that REM sleep aids in certain memory consolidations although some argue that it actually leads to "reverse learning. Before discussing the role of NREM and REM in learning, it is necessary to clarify the identity of and differences between the two. This type of sleep is marked by different stages based on different the different brainwaves exhibited. REM sleep differs from NREM in that most dreams occur during REM sleep although the two activities are not synonymous. REM is also marked by an incre... ...ource http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro03/web1/alippman.html 3)The REM Sleep-Memory Consolidation Hypothesis," article on Center for Sleep Research's homepage, Interesting site for sleep disorders http://www.nrip.ucla.edu/sleepresearch/science/1058full.html 4)Nature website, good for scientific articles http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/news020218/020218-20 5)MIT News website, interesting articles http://web.mit.edu/newsoffice/2002/dreams.html 6); TALK ABOUT SLEEP, Inc., basics answers about sleep http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/neuro/neuro03/web2/)%20http://www.talkaboutsleep.com/basics/Sleep_Understanding_NINDS.htm 7)Harvard Undergraduate Society for Neuroscience, connected to Computer Science Program http://hcs.harvard.edu/~husn/BRAIN/vol1/sleep.html 8)UCSC Psych Website, http://psych.ucsc.edu/dreams/Articles/purpose.html

Code Division Multiple Access Communication Systems

Chapter 2- Communication System Telecommunication systems have now made it possible to pass on with virtually anyone at any clip. Early telegraph and telephone system used Cu wire to transport signal over the earth’ surface and across oceans and high frequence ( HF ) wireless, besides normally called shortwave wireless, made possible inter-continental telephone links.Every communicating system has its ain frequence scope, system, capacity, application execution cost. On the footing of transmittal system there are two types of communicating system †¢ Wired communicating system †¢ Wireless communicating system 2.2 Multiple Access Technique A limited sum of bandwidth is allocated for radio services. A radio system is required to incorporate as many users as possible by efficaciously sharing the limited bandwidth. Therefore, in communicating, the term multiple entree can non be defined as a agency of leting multiple users to at the same time portion the finite bandwidth with least possible debasement in the public presentation of the system. There are four multiple entree methods – a ) Frequency Division Multiple Access ( FDMA ) B ) Time Division Multiple Access ( TDMA ) degree Celsius ) Code Division Multiple Access ( CDMA ) vitamin D ) Space Division Multiple Access ( SDMA )Frequency Division Multiple Accesses ( FDMA )FDMA is one of the oldest multiple entree techniques for cellular systems when uninterrupted transmittal is required for parallel services. In this bandwidth is divided into a figure of channels and distributed among users with a finite part of bandwidth for lasting usage, as illustrated in figure 2.2. The channels are assigned merely when there is a demand of the users. Therefore when a channel is non in usage it consequences in a otiose resource. Fig 2.2Channel Use by FDMA FDMA channels have narrow bandwidth of about 30 KHz, and therefore they are normally implemented in narrow set system. Since the user has his part of bandwidth all the clip, FDMA does non necessitate clocking control, which makes it simple. Even though no two users use the same frequence set at the same clip, guard sets are introduced between sets to minimise channel intervention. Guard sets are fresh frequence slots which separates neighbouring channels. This leads to a wastage of bandwidth. In a non-continuous transmittal bandwidth goes wasted since it is non being utilized for a part of the clip.Time Division Multiple Access ( TDMA )In digital systems, uninterrupted transmittal is non required as the users do non use the allotted bandwidth all the clip. In such systems, TDMA is a O.K.ing technique compared to FDMA. Global Systems for Mobile communications i.e GSM uses the TDMA technique. In TDMA, bandwidth is available to the user but merely for a finite period of clip. In most in stances the bandwidth is divided into fewer channels compared to FDMA and the users are allotted clip slots during which they have the full channel bandwidth at their disposal. This is illustrated in figure 2.3. Fig 2.3Channel Uses by TDMA TDMA requires careful clip synchronism since users portion the bandwidth in the frequence sphere. As the figure of channels are less, channel intervention is about negligible, hence the guard clip between the channels is significantly smaller. Guard clip is spacing clip between the TDMA. In cellular communications, whenever a user moves from one cell to other there is a opportunity that user could see a call loss if there are no free clip slots. TDMA uses different clip slots for transmittal every bit good as response.Code Division Multiple AccessIn CDMA, all the users occupy the same bandwidth, though they are all assigned separate codifications, which distinguishes them from each other as shown in figure 2.4. CDMA systems utilize a spread spectrum technique in which a spreading signal, is uncorrelated to the signal and has a larger bandwidth, is used to distribute the narrow set signal. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum i.e DS-SS is most normally used for codification division multip le surplus. In Direct sequence spread spectrum, the message signal is multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code, which has a noise like belongingss. Each user has its ain codification which is extraneous to the codification of every other users. In order to feel the user, the receiving system is required to cognize the codeword used by the sender. contrasting TDMA, CDMA does non necessitate clip synchronism between the users. Fig 2.4Channel Uses by CDMA 2.4 CDMA 2.4.1 History Code Division Multiple Access ( CDMA ) is a new construct in wireless communications. It has achieved widespread credence by cellular system operators, that will dramatically increase both their system capacity and the service quality. CDMA is a signifier of spread-spectrum, that have been used in military applications for old ages. The rule of spread spectrum is the usage of noise-like moving ridges and, as the name connote bandwidths much larger than that required for simple point to indicate communicating at the same information rate. foremost there were two motive: To defy enemy attempts to throng the communications ( anti-jam, or AJ ) , or to conceal the fact that communicating was even taking topographic point, from clip to clip called low chance of intercept. It has a history that goes back to the early yearss of World War second. The usage of CDMA for nomadic wireless applications is new. It was planned theoretically in the late fourty’s. profitable applications became promising because of two evolutionary developments. One was the handiness of really low cost, high denseness digital ICs, which cut down the size and cost of the endorser Stationss to an adequately low value. Introduction to CDMA CDMA is a multiple entree technique that allows multiple users to convey independent information within the same bandwidth at the same time. Each user is assigned a pseudo-random codification that is either extraneous to the codifications of all the other users or the codification possesses appropriate cross-correlation belongingss that minimize the multiple entree intervention ( MAI ) . This codification is superimposed on an information signal therefore, doing the signal emerges to be noise like to other users. Merely the intended receiving system has a reproduction of the same codification and uses it to pull out the information signal. This so allows the sharing of the same spectrum by multiple users without doing inordinate MAI. It besides ensures message privateness, since merely the intended user is able to â€Å"decode† the signal. This codification is besides known as a spreading codification, since it spreads the bandwidth of the original informations signal into a m uch higher bandwidth before transmittal. 2.4.2 CDMA Classification Tree Fig 2.6Classification Tree of the assorted types of CDMA Techniques Advantages of CDMA One of the chief advantages of CDMA is that call dropouts occur merely when the phone is at least twice every bit far from the base station. It is used in the pastoral countries where GSM make non acquire to work decently. Another advantage is capacity means it has a really high spectral capacity so that it can suit more users. Disadvantages of CDMA One major job in CDMA engineering is channel pollution, where signals from excessively different cell sites are present in the subscriber’s phone but none of them is foremost. When this state of affairs arises the characteristic of the audio signal degrades. Another disadvantage is when compared to GSM it lacks international roaming capablenesss. 2.5 Spread Spectrum Spread spectrum are the methods in which energy generated at a individual frequence is spread over a broad set of frequences. The basic spread spectrum technique is shown in Figure 2.7. This is done to accomplish transmittal that is robust against the channel damages, and to be able to defy natural interventions or thronging besides to forestall hostile sensing. These techniques were developed by military counsel systems. The technique is said to be spread spectrum if transmittal bandwidth is much greater than minimal bandwidth needed to convey the information.The system achieves spread spectrum if it fulfills the undermentioned demands:Signal occupies bandwidth much larger of the minimal bandwidth necessary to direct information.Spreading is done with the aid of distributing codification signal which is independent of the informations.At the receiving system, de-spreading is done by the correlativity of the received dispersed signal with a synchronised reproduction of the distributi ng signal used to distribute the information.Spread signal bandwidth Undesired signal informations signal recovered informations Spreading code signal Spreading codification signal Fig 2.7Model of Basic Spread Spectrum Technique The chief parametric quantity in dispersed spectrum systems is the treating addition: Is the ratio of transmittal and information bandwidth:Gp =, which is fundamentally the spreading factor. The processing addition calculates the figure of users that can be allowed, the sum of multi-path effects and the trouble to throng a signal. Spread spectrum can be classified as follows – a ) Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum B ) Frequency Hoping Spread Spectrum degree Celsius ) Time Hopping Spread Spectrum 2.5.1 DS-CDMA Direct Sequence is the best Dispersed Spectrum Technique. The DS-CDMA method provides a multiple of benefits in cellular systems including easiness in planing frequence channels and protection against intervention, such that a high procedure addition is used. In DS-CDMA each user has its ain spreading codification. The choice of good codification is of import because auto-correlation belongingss and length of the codification restricts system capacity. The codification can be divided into two categories-Orthogonal codifications ( Walsh codifications )Non-orthogonal codifications ( PN, Gold, Kasami codifications )The informations signal is multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code. A PN codification is a sequence of french friess its scope is -1 and 1 ( polar ) or 0 and 1 ( non-polar ) . This consequences in low cross-correlation values among the codifications and the trouble to throng or observe a information message. A usual manner to make a PN codification is by agencies of at least one displacement registry. The bit rate decides the rate at which distributing signals are transmitted. At the receiver terminal, spread signals are decoded with the aid of correlativity maps. Cross correlativity de-spreads the standard signals and retrieves the familial signal similar to the user’s original signal. The distributing sequences can orthogonal agencies ‘0’ transverse correlativity or random sequences with low cross-correlation belongingss. Y ( T ) m ( T ) C ( T ) Cos ( wt ) Fig 2.8Direct Sequence Spread – Spectrum Modulation System In the DS-CDMA technique, each spots of the users informations are multiplied with a codification in the transmitting terminal. The codification sequence used in conveying terminal performs the function of distributing codification. The baseband theoretical account of a DS-CDMA system is shown in fig 2.8. Let m ( T ) denotes a binary information sequence, degree Celsius ( T ) denotes a codification sequence. The wave forms m ( T ) and c ( T ) denote polar representations in footings of two degrees as  ±1. By multiplying the information spots by the codification, each information spot is divided into a little clip increases that are called french friess. The baseband signal( T ) is filtered to restrict energy within the bandwidth, defined by the codification rate. The bearer transition normally used in dispersed spectrum is phase displacement identifying. Sing the figure we get: ( T ) = m ( T ) C ( T ) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ ( 3.2 ) The baseband signal( T ) is convoluted with the impulse response of the spectrum determining filter to give Y ( T ) : Y ( T ) =( T ) ? H ( T ) , where * denotes convolution†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ The set base on balls signal( T ) = [( T ) ? H ( T ) ] cosT ) †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. ( 3.4 ) m ( T ) Cos ( wt ) Clock C ( T ) Fig 2.9Matched Filter Spread-Spectrum Receiver. The standard Band base on balls signal( T ) is converted to an tantamount complex low base on balls signal A ( T ) by blending with a locally generated coherent bearer. The complex low base on balls signal A ( T ) =( T ) cost†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. ( 3.5 ) The de-spread signal B ( T ) = A ( T ) [ C ( T ) ? H ( T ) ] †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ ( 3.6 ) The end product of the matched filter D ( T ) =( 3.7 ) . The receiving system decodes the informations: D ( T ) & A ; gt ; 0 decode binary ‘1’ otherwise decode binary ‘0’. -11 1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 -1 -1 user’s spot dispersed signal Despread signal Received spot distributing sequence distributing sequence Fig 2.10User Signal in DS-CDMA System Let us believe the first spots of four users. By multiplying each spot with a PN codification, users spots are represented by seven french friess as shown above. User 1 [ 1 ] : 1 C1: -1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1 = & A ; gt ; -1 -1 1 1 1 -1 1 User 2 [ 1 ] : -1 C2: 1 -1 -1 1 1 1 -1= & A ; gt ;-1 1 1 -1 -1 -1 1 User 3 [ 1 ] : 1 C3: -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 1 = & A ; gt ; -1 1 -1 -1 1 1 1 User 4 [ 1 ] : -1 C4: 1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 1= & A ; gt ; -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 – 1 R [ 1 ] : -4 2 0 0 2 -2 2 ( received informations ) The received information consists of information of four users. To retrieve the original spots of users from the received informations, the received informations should multiplied with the codification sequence in the receiving system that is precisely same with that is used for distributing the original informations in sender agencies ( de-spreading ) . We assume that the receiving system operates in perfect synchrony with the sender. As a last measure, determination is made by comparing the consequences with a threshold value as shown below. R [ 1 ] * C1= 4-2+2+2+2= 8 & A ; gt ; 0 = & A ; gt ; 1 R [ 1 ] * C2= -4-2+2-2-2= -8 & A ; lt ; 0 = & A ; gt ; -1 R [ 1 ] * C3= 4+2+2-2+2= 8 & A ; gt ; 0 = & A ; gt ; 1 R [ 1 ] * C4= -4-2-2-2+2= -8 & A ; lt ; 0 = & A ; gt ; -1 Advantages of DS-CDMAIt has an intervention rejection belongings ; every user is identified with a specific codification sequence which is about extraneous to the other users codifications.The DS-CDMA besides excludes the demand of channel spliting therefore all users use the full channel bandwidth.Furthermore, it is stiff to multipath attenuation. Signals in DS-CDMA systems are indistinguishable strength full a broad bandwidth which can pull strings the multipath attenuation to modify the end product.Properties of DS-CDMA.Multiple Access – If multiple users use the channel at the same clip, there will be multiple signals overlapping in clip and frequence. At the receiver terminal coherent demodulation is used to take the codification transition. This method concentrates the power of the desired user in the information bandwidth. If the cross-correlations between the codification of the desired user and the codifications of the interfering users are little, consistent sensing will merely set a little portion of the power of the interfering signals into the information bandwidth.Narrowband Interference- The coherent sensing at the receiving system involves a generation of the standard signal with a locally generated codification sequence. However, as we see at the sender, multiplying a narrowband signal with a wideband codification sequence spreads the spectrum of the narrowband signal so that its power in the information bandwidth decreases by a factor which is equal to the processing addition.2.6 Problem Description Main job with DS-SS is the so called Near –Far consequence. This is described by an illustration. In figure 2.12 this consequence is present when an interfering sender TX ( B ) is closer to the receiving system RX ( A ) than the intended TX ( A ) and, the correlativity between the standard signal from the interfering sender TX ( B ) and RX ( A ) can be higher than the correlativity between the standard signal from the intended sender TX ( A ) and RX ( A ) . The consequence is that proper informations sensing is non possible. Transmitter Tx ( B ) Transmitter Tx ( A ) Fig 2.12Near Far Effect Another job is hidden and exposed terminus in wireless Ad-hoc web. Hidden terminusjob refers- The hit of package at the having node due to the coincident transmittal of those nodes that are non within the direct transmittal scope of the transmitter. Exposed terminusjob refers- The inability of a node which is blocked due to nearby transmission node, to convey another node. For Example if both node S1 and S2 transmit to node R1 at same clip their packages collide at node R1.This happens because both nodes S1 and S2 are hidden from each other as they are non within the direct transmittal scope of each other. This is called concealed terminus job. On the other manus if a transmittal from node S1 to another node R1 is already in advancement, node S3 can non convey to node R2, as it concludes that its neighbour node S1 is in conveying node and hence it should non interface with the on-going transmittal. This job reduces the throughput of web when traffic burden is high. Transmission scope of node S1 Transmission scope of node S2 Fig 2.13Hidden and Exposed Terminal Problems 2.7 Proposed Work The Basic motivation of our undertaking was to analyze and develop an Efficient Mac based DS-CDMA protocol for work outing near far job. A CDMA communicating system requires an efficient design and testing of its subsystems of PN-sequence generator, spectrum spreading and de-spreading digital circuits and digital modulator and detector faculties which give high throughput. Another issue is near far consequence. 2.7.1 Reason for proposed protocol The Near far consequence is created in the uplink of DS-SS CDMA. When a combination of unfastened and closed-loop power control which ensures that each terminus generates the same signal power at the base station. The base station monitors the power of standard signal from each terminus and instructs distant terminuss to increase their signal powers and nearby terminuss to diminish theirs illustration below shows the power control entirely is non plenty to cut down the near–far job in DS SS CDMA ad-hoc Network. Example: – Letdenote the distance between nodes Ks and n. suppose A wants to pass on with B utilizing a given codification and C wants to pass on with D utilizing a different codification. Suppose that tap ? dCD, dCB & A ; lt ; & A ; lt ; tap, and dad & A ; lt ; & A ; lt ; dCD. Then, the MAI caused by C makes it impossible for B to have A transmittal. Similarly, the Multiple entree intervention caused by A makes it impossible for D to have C transmittal. It is of import to observe that the two transmittals can non take topographic point at the same time, irrespective of what transmittal powers are selected if an addition in power is made to battle the MAI at B, this increased power will destruct the response at D. Fig 2.14Example shows the Power Control entirely is non plenty to cut down the Near–Far job in DS-SS CDMA Ad-hoc Network The above Fig. unveils two types of jobs – . 1.Medium entree job: – The usage of two different distributing codifications to happen at the same clip is non possible for two transmittals, this job is referred to as medium entree job. 2. Power control job: – If the terminuss adjust their signal powers so two transmittals can take topographic point at the same clip so that the intervention caused by one transmittal is non big plenty to pulverize package response at other terminuss. This is referred as power control job. So the cardinal solution to the close far job must hold both elements: power control and medium entree. 2.7.2 DESIGN GOAL FOR PROTOCOL The Following are the specifications while planing a MAC protocol for Ad-hoc web:The operation of the protocol should be widen and provide quality of service for existent clip traffic.The protocol must be a non-synchronous, spread operation, every bit good as scalable for big webs. It must besides affect minimum exchange of information and must be suited for real-time execution.The protocol must be scalable to big web. in this protocol should be minimise the consequence of hidden and exposed terminus job.The protocol should hold agencies for adaptative informations rate control and it should hold power control mechanisms in order to expeditiously pull off the energy ingestion of node.The receiving system circuitry should non be complex in the sense that it should non be required to supervise the whole codification set.So we design the DS-SS CDMA system with MAC protocol utilizing VHDL.VHDL Implementation of DS-SS CDMA based Mac protocol for Ad-hoc Networks1

Improving Teaching and Learning Essay

As all children’s experiences and development are individual, every child will have their own unique ‘starting point’ from where to continue their learning of a subject from. Ausubel (1968) puts forward the interesting thought that we should design our teaching to start from where the pupil is. However, as Littledyke & Huxton (1998) suggest, it is almost impossible to take into account every individual child’s educational ‘starting point. I tried to establish a ‘common starting point’ by getting the whole class to brainstorm what they knew about metal. This would provide me with a vague idea of the knowledge each child held and enable me to successfully plan suitable investigative activities. This matches Piaget’s (1926) notion of ‘cognitive match’. The need to pitch the learning experience at the right level, for each child. † The teacher leads a discussion on a topic to draw out a range of ideas from this the teacher may be able to judge which children are most or least knowledgeable. However there may be several children within the class about the teacher knows very little even after the brainstorming session. † (Littledyke & Huxford, 1998, p22) To combat this problem that Littledyke and Huxford (1998) mention I talked to children who did not take part in the whole class session individually to found out their level of knowledge on the subject. One of the objects on my display table was a magnet. Many of the children seemed fascinated by the magnet, as groups of children would constantly pick it up and play with it. After seeing this I decided I would get the children to investigate which materials are attracted to a magnet. This seemed like an excellent idea as I had already observed that the children were interested in this subject. The investigation would be carried out in a constructivist manner, with the children working individually. From this I could see that Rodney had had no past experience with magnets and therefore had no knowledge that magnets are made of metal. All he knew was that the object he held in his hand was called a ‘magnet’ and that it stuck to metal objects. He had guessed that the magnet was made of plastic (probably due to the fact that it was coated in plastic) and constructed a misconception. On analysing this conversation I concluded that carrying my investigation out in a constructivist manner and pitching my investigation at an intermediate level, had missed Rodney’s (and no doubt others) ‘starting point’ of subject knowledge leading him to create his own incorrect idea. I believe this evidence contradicts a constructivist way of teaching as without positively intervening, questioning and explaining to Rodney that the magnet was made of metal, more problems may have arise in the form of further misconceptions or being unable to carry out following work effectively. Instead it matches Littledykes & Huxtons (1998) suggestion that matching every child’s ‘starting point’ is extremely challenging and if not done accurately, as shown from the evidence, can cause problems for the child. This brings to light that maybe a different teaching style needs to be adopted. Maybe I should have used the transmission approach of teaching at the beginning of the lesson and clarified vital pieces of information so that non of the children would have had misconceptions and the investigation would have succeed to the best of its ability. This however would have been uninteresting for the children. In using a constructivist method of teaching, allowing the child to work independently building on old ideas to construct new ones, there is always a risk that misconceptions may arise. When children are discovering a convention for themselves and intervention from a more knowledgeable source is absent, children may take the information and instead of placing it in the perspective of conventional science they place it in their own logical perspective. For example, after the investigation, I sat with each ability group and asked them to inform me of their findings. Through discussion and questioning within the group, I challenged ideas, aiding children to have access and maybe use of other children’s ideas and therefore make their own clearer. The following conversation was typical of all the groups. In conclusion, I believe that constructivism is an effective way in enabling children to build on or amend active ideas as it allows the child to undertaking ‘hands on’ activities and actually appreciate a theory in action. This in turn could either deepen understanding or change misconceptions they may have emerged throughout the topic. Practical activities subsequently help the children to retain the information as ‘doing’ experiments, which are of interest to them, help them remember the vital information needed. These facts could then be recalled instantaneously when re-visiting and building on a similar topic, later on in the curriculum. Due to all the disadvantages mentioned earlier in my assignment, it is obvious that constructivism cannot stand-alone. It is acceptable to use constructivist methods but they must be used in conjunction with other teaching methods also mentioned earlier. This, as teachers, is down to our professional judgement to decide when and where they should be used. The right teaching style should accommodate the right job and although constructivism is a sound way to allow children to investigate, it does not always fit the purpose of the scientific investigation wanting to be carried out. However I believe that we adopt many different teaching styles throughout a lesson without even knowing it. Bibliography ASHCROFT, K & LEE, J (2000) Improving Teaching and Learning in the Core Curriculum. London: Falmer. ATKINSON & FLEER (1995) Science with Reason. Hodder & Staughton. COLLINS EDUCATIONAL (1995) Nuffield Primary Science, materials: teachers guide. London De BOO, M (2000) Science 3-6 Laying the foundations in the Early Years. ASE Hatfield. DFEE, (2000) The National Curriculum: Handbook for Primary Teachers in England. London: DFEE & QCA. FARROW, S. (2000) The Really Useful Science Book. London:Falmer.